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THE NBA ON NETWORK TELEVISION: A HISTORICAL ANALYSISByMARIO R.
SARMENTOA THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITYOF
FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FORTHE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS IN MASS COMMUNICATIONUNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA1998
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iiACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe author wished to express his gratitude to his
advisors, Dr. Bernell E.Tripp, Dr. David H. Ostroff, and Dr. Jon
Roosenraad; Dr. Tripp for her diligence inreading the thesis and
commenting on corrections that needed to be made, Dr. Ostrofffor his
advice and suggestions on how to research and approach the topic, and
Dr.Roosenraad for his assistance.The author would also like to thank
his parents for making this study possible. Thanks also go to the
National Basketball Association for providing the videotapesused in
the analysis section as well as providing the league's contract
information.
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iiiTABLE OF CONTENTS
PageACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
iiABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
viCHAPTERS1.INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 1Review of
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
4Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 8Implications of
Study . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 102. 1940s-50s: FROM NBA BEGINNINGS TO
TELEVISION
BEGINNINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 12The NBA is
Born . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 13The DuMont
Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15Sports on
Television . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 17The Shot
Clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 19Television
Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
23Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
25Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 253. THE 1960s: A TURBULENT DECADE FOR THE
NBA . ... 29Sports on
Television . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
29NBA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 31The
ABL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 32NBA Changes
Networks . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34The
ABA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 36The Knicks Become
Winners . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
39Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 394. THE 1970s: A DECADE OF
UNFULFILLEDEXPECTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .43Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 43The Sport of
the `70s . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44Criticisms of
Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
46CBS Struggles to Improve
Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48Ratings
Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
. . . . 49
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ivNBA Image
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52ABA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
55Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
57Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .575.THE 1980s: A DECADE OF
PROSPERITY . . . . . . . . . . . 62Bird and
Magic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 62The NBA Makes
Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 63The
Resurgence of the
NBA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 65David
Stern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 67The
Superstars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
69Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
71Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 726. THE 1990s: ON THE COATTAILS OF MICHAEL
JORDAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 76Jordan Reaches the
Pinnacle . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76Jordan
Retires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 77New Stars Fill the
Void . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78Jordan
Returns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 80The NBA Again Faces Life After
Jordan . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .
83Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
84Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 847. KEY GAMES IN TELEVISION
HISTORY . . . . . .. . . . . . . 88Game 1 1954 Eastern Division
Playoffs: Boston Celtics vs.New York
Knicks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 89Game 1 1956 NBA Finals: Philadelphia Warriors vs. Fort Wayne
Pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 90Game 7 1970 NBA Finals: New York Knicks vs. LosAngeles
Lakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 90Game 7 1984 NBA Finals: Boston Celtics vs. LosAngeles
Lakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 91Game 1 1991 NBA Finals: Chicago Bulls vs. Los Angeles
Lakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
93Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 958. HOW TELEVISION CHANGED
SPORTS . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .97Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
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v9. ANALYSIS: A COMPARISON BETWEEN 1980s NBA GAMES AND 1990s NBA
GAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1021970s
Telecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .104Pregame Coverage in the
1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106Teases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 107Introduction of
Announcers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107Team
Lineups/Injury Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1081990s
Pregame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . .
109Teases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 109Injury
Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
110Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 1111980s Game
Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
112Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . . . . . . 113Themes of the
Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .
118Replays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
121Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . 123Halftime
Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
124Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 124Postgame
Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
127Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
128Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
129Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . 13010. DISCUSSION AND
IMPLICATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
134Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .137APPENDIX A: NBA FRANCHISES BY DECADE SINCE
1946 . . . . . . . . 140APPENDIX B: NBA TELEVISION
CONTRACTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
145BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146BIOGRAPHICAL
SKETCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 154
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viAbstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of the
University of Florida inPartial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of Master of Arts in MassCommunicationTHE NBA ON NETWORK
TELEVISION: A HISTORICAL ANALYSISByMario R. SarmentoDecember
1998Chairman: Dr. Bernell E. TrippMajor Department: Journalism and
CommunicationsThis thesis is a documentation of the history of the
National BasketballAssociation (NBA) on national television from the
early 1950s until 1998. Specifically, this thesis examines the
implementation of television coverage of the NBAand how coverage
changed the sport. Newspaper and magazine articles from
previousdecades were selected to document the league's history on
television as well as rulechanges and historical developments in the
NBA as well. Key games in the history ofnetwork coverage of the NBA
are cited, and they were selected based on theirhistorical
significance to the NBA on television. Also, an analysis of games
from the1980s and 1990s was conducted to determine how television
coverage has changedsince the early days of the medium. Specifically,
this was done through the use of newspaper and magazine articlesthat
offered criticism of the commentators who covered the game. The
gamesthemselves were broken down into four segments: pregame,
halftime, postgame, andgame coverage. The pregame show was further
segmented into four areas: theopening portion of the telecast, which
in broadcasting terminology is known as a tease,introduction of
announcers, and team lineups/injury reports. The content of the
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viipregame shows was also analyzed. It was determined that pregame
coverage hasgrown more sophisticated since the 1980s, with more
elaborate teases and moresophisticated analysis of injuries than
before. Game coverage was also broken down into four subjects:
commentary duringthe games, themes of the games as described by the
announcers during the games, theuse of replays, and the use of
graphics. Commentary in 1990s games was found to bemore detailed and
insightful than coverage during the 1980s, and there were morereplays
and camera angles used in 1990s coverage as opposed to 1980s
coverage. More sophisticated and detailed graphics were used in the
1990s, specifically the useof shot charts to monitor the players'
performances and the use of shooting percentageand turnover and
rebounding statistics. There was one consistent element to coverage
from the '80s to the '90s, andthat was the announcers' use of game
themes to describe to viewers how one team haddefeated another. The
game themes have also become more elaborate over the years;where once
announcers in the '80s highlighted two or three key themes that led a
teamto victory, coverage in the '90s indicated that there were
several themes announcersused to present the storylines of the games.
Finally, halftime and postgame showswere examined for their content
and it was found that coverage in the 1990s providedmore analysis and
elaboration on key plays in the games than in the 1980s.Finally, this
study examined how television coverage changed both the NBA,and mass
media coverage of the game. It was determined that NBA officials
madeseveral rule changes over the years in an effort to appeal to
television viewers. Journalists were also forced to write about other
aspects of the games since viewerscould see the results on
television. This led to more in-depth analysis of games.
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Page 8
1CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONThe National Basketball Association (NBA) has
grown up over the last 20years. Once on the verge of collapse, and
unwanted by television, the NBA hasrebounded to become arguably the
most popular league in the nation. Among youngpeople, the NBA has in
fact surpassed the National Football League (NFL) as thenumber one
sport.1If this statement would have been made 10 years ago, it
wouldhave been dismissed as ridiculous. It was through television
that the league finallyestablished itself as a worthy counterpart to
Major League Baseball and the NFL. The league got its first
television exposure during the 1953-54 season on thelong-since folded
DuMont network. At that time, baseball was still the nationalpastime,
and pro football was beginning to emerge as a popular sport in its
own right.2Even college basketball was considered a more attractive
television commodity thanthe NBA.3The NBA was considered to be a
minor-league operation at the time, butwhen the college point-shaving
scandals of the early '50s rocked college basketball andleft the NBA
relatively unscathed, the league began its emergence into the
nationalspotlight.4However, the interest faded, and after DuMont
folded in 1954, the leaguebegan a partnership with the National
Broadcasting Company (NBC) for the 1954-55season. Yet, the promising
partnership between NBC and the NBA was diminished bythe slow pace
and fouling exhibitions NBA games had become in the 1950s. Withouta
time constraint for a team to get a shot off, the NBA was always
played at a slow
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2pace, with one team opening up a bit of a lead and then putting the
ball into a deepfreeze until time ran out.5The league was dying a
slow death, and the snail's pace threatened to wipe outprofessional
basketball entirely. A few games in particular showed how the game
wasplayed back then. On November 22, 1950, the Fort Wayne Pistons
defeated theworld-champion Minneapolis Lakers 19-18 in the lowest-
scoring game ever.6Theproblems continued three years later, when 106
fouls were called and 128 free throwswere shot in a playoff game
between the Boston Celtics and Syracuse Nationals. Celtic great Bob
Cousy scored 50 points, but 30 of them came at the foul line.7Hewas
the only player to make more than five field goals in the entire game!
8A yearlater, NBC gave the NBA an opportunity to shine by nationally
televising a playoffgame between the Celtics and the New York Knicks.
The 95-foul display ended inhumiliation for the league when the
network switched away before the game had evenended.9The savior for
the NBA emerged in the form of Syracuse Nationals ownerDanny Biasone,
who instituted the 24-second shot clock that most agree saved
theleague.10The 1954-55 season was the first played with the shot
clock, and the resultswere a more wide open style of play far more
appealing to television viewers than theold style. The first national
telecast of an NBA Finals game took place one seasonlater, when the
Philadelphia Warriors and Fort Wayne Pistons met for
thechampionship.11The NBA has been selected for this study to
determine how television coveragechanged mass media coverage of
basketball and the way the viewers perceived thegame. The early years
of television and the problems faced by the NBA have largely
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3been ignored, and not much was written about the league before the
popularityexplosion in the 1980s. But this was a league that
struggled for nearly 40 years to findits niche with the public, and
it took a host of exciting young stars and the arrival ofDavid Stern
as commissioner to turn the NBA's television fortunes around. This
study will examine television coverage of the NBA, including articles
fromprevious decades that chronicled the league's woes. Also, there
will be a focus on thebroadcasts of key games that were critical in
the league's evolution or regression andhow they impacted the
league's development. These benchmarks include the Knicks-Celtics
game of which NBC ended coverage abruptly, the first NBA Finals game
everbroadcast, the 1970 NBA Finals, that brought unparalleled
attention to the league, the1984 NBA Finals between the Los Angeles
Lakers and Celtics that served as thespringboard to the NBA's current
success, and the Chicago Bulls-Lakers showdown inthe 1980s that
served as a changing of the guard in one respect, and the
continuationof league popularity.In addition, there will be a
comparison made to demonstrate how coverage ofthe league has changed
since the popularity explosion in the early 1980s. Toaccomplish this,
there will be an examination of different games for the 1980s
and1990s to analyze the content of commentary and visual presentation
of NBA games. Specifically, the comparison will be made between a
regular season game from 1980, aplayoff game telecast on a local
Milwaukee TV station, the 1987 NBA Finals, the 1991 NBA Finals, and
the 1998 NBA Finals. Criticisms of how the announcers calledthe game
will also be analyzed. This study will note how the announcing style
haschanged, if at all, from the years just before the NBA popularity
increased. Also, theproduction quality of the games will be analyzed,
as well as the focus of commentary
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Page 11
4from the announcers. Comparisons will also be made in the pre-game
and post-gameformats to follow any trends or changes in
coverage.Review of LiteratureOnly a few books and articles
specifically dealt with television coverage of theNBA. Other sources
dealt with the reasons for the NBA's success or lack of success.
Several other works focused on the great players and their impact on
the game, whichin turn influenced the television coverage of it.
Finally, some articles dealt with theanalysis of network coverage
and/or commentators that worked for those networks. This section
explores all of these works in the field of television coverage
ofprofessional basketball.In In Its Own Image: How Television Has
Transformed Sports, Benjamin G.Rader discussed the key developments
in sports that have been directly attributable totelevision.12He
traced the NFL and baseball back to the first telecasts and
explainedhow sports evolved from a minor aspect of television
programming in the early days tobecoming a major aspect of television
programming. Rader also described how theincrease in prominence on
television led to rule changes in football to make the gamemore
interesting for viewers at home, how network contracts were
originallynegotiated, and how these contracts have ballooned in
recent years. Rader specificallydescribed the NBA's beginnings as an
unwanted, unwatched sport in the 1950s. Hethen described the league's
lack of success through the 60s and 70s and critics'perspectives on
the NBA's television problems. However, there was not a
historicalanalysis of the NBA's television coverage or as much in-
depth analysis as Raderdevoted to baseball and football.
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Page 12
5Rader also explored the evolution of sports in America in another
book,American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of
Televised Sports.13Inthe book, Rader asserted that the American
Broadcasting Company (ABC) took thelead among the major networks in
increasing sports programming with the belief thatthere would be an
increased visibility for the network. Rader credited Roone
Arledgewith ABC's success in doing so. This success led to the other
networks creating anintense competition for the right to televise the
major sports. Rader also creditedArledge with bringing the fan into
the game with his use of a variety of camera angles. As far as
basketball was concerned, Rader insisted that the inability of the
NBA to fielda strong team in New York was a major reason why
television produced only modestrevenues. He also described how the 24-
second clock was a hindrance, as well as anaid, to the NBA's
television future. Rader did admit to the NBA's rapid growth
ontelevision in the 1980s, but as in his first book, he did not go
into any detail about theleague's television history or the reasons
for its success.The National Broadcasting Association listed all of
the contracts in every majorsport in the book, Sports on
Television.14The National Broadcasting Associationlisted NBA rules on
local telecasts, the local television stations that covered each
teamin the NBA, and the stipulations of the league's contracts at the
time. However, therewas no historical analysis of the relationship
between the league and television, andthere was no discussion on
current coverage of the games.Marc Gunther discussed the role Roone
Arledge played in developing themodern technique of packaging sports
for television in his book The House ThatRoone Built: The Inside
Story of ABC News.15A chapter in Gunther's book wasdevoted to
Arledge's ascendance in ABC sports from his arrival in 1960.
Basketball
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6was mentioned briefly, but Gunther noted the innovations Arledge
brought to sportsprogramming. However, this chapter on Arledge's
influence on sports programmingwas brief.Bert Randolph Sugar also
examined Arledge's contributions to televised sportsin The Thrill of
Victory: The Inside Story of ABC Sports.16Sugar followed the courseof
ABC's sports division throughout its history. The focus of this book
was primarilyon the NFL and Arledge's "Monday Night Football"
extravaganza than on the NBA. Again, there was only a brief mention
of basketball, since ABC had the rights totelevise professional games
for ten of the leaner years in league history. In addition to these
books, other books about NBA history made briefmentions of
television, which were important pieces to the historic puzzle.
MichaelLaBlanc presented a chronological history of every team in the
NBA in his book,Professional Sports Team Histories:
Basketball.17LaBlanc echoed the sentiments ofRader when he wrote that
the NBA suffered on television due to the fact that the NewYork
Knicks never had a winning team. In his section on the Knicks,
LaBlanc alsodescribed the nationally televised Knicks-Celtics playoff
game in 1954 which was sopoorly played that NBC had to cut away from
it.18LaBlanc concluded that this gameand others like it before the
shot clock did much to turn viewers and networks awayfrom the NBA.
More a chronology of the league's teams, this book was not a sourceof
much information relating to television other than the Knicks-Celtics
gamedescribed.Zander Hollander and Alex Sachare's traced the
chronology of the entire NBA,season by season, since it began as the
Basketball Association (BAA) in 1946. In TheOfficial NBA Basketball
Encyclopedia,19Zander and Hollander noted the key
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Page 14
7developments in each season. Television was not mentioned
prominently, except forthe section on the adoption of the 24-second
clock that many argued saved the league. Also, the impact of stars
like Bill Russell, Wilt Chamberlain, Larry Bird, and otherswas
mentioned in association with NBA success on television. In Roland
Lazenby's chronology of finals games, The NBA Finals: A Fifty-
YearCelebration, he noted the development of the shot clock as a
major step in enhancingthe NBA's image on television.20In addition,
he described the impact of the keychampionship games on television,
as well as the star players' impact on the league. Lazenby pointed
out the Celtics-Lakers rivalry in the 1960s and 1980s, as well as
theimpact Larry Bird and Magic Johnson had on the league on
television. MichaelJordan's impact was also assessed by Lazenby in
the Chicago Bulls' four Finalsappearances. Lindsey Nelson provided an
autobiography about his life and career in thebook, Hello Everybody,
I'm Lindsey Nelson, devoting an entire section to sports ontelevision
and the role he played in covering sports for NBC when the medium was
inits infancy.21Nelson provided a brief two-page glimpse of his days
as a the play-by-play man for NBC when the NBA had a contract with
the network. He also describedhow the league adapted to television
those days, but he did not go into detail on thehistory of the NBA on
television and he provided no insight as to how the games
wereproduced. Chapters in Benjamin Rader's books and a chapter for
the Gunther and Sugarbooks are the only books to deal with the NBA's
history on television. Even so, thehistory is brief since the league
did not establish itself as an equal of the NFL andbaseball until the
1980s. However, several newspaper and magazine articles
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8chronicled the league's development on television, as well as its
shortcomings. Theauthors of these articles have also offered the
prevailing opinions as to why the leaguewas struggling or prospering.
Lazenby and Hollander & Sachare provided historicalbackdrops for the
NBA's relationship with television, and helped to support claims
ofwhether the league was advancing on TV or regressing.
MethodologyThis paper will provide a historical analysis of NBA
coverage on television,starting from the first television contract
through the NBA's current deal with NBC. Each decade will be assessed
in terms of how it either contributed or set back theNBA. This will
be done through the interpretation of articles written during these
timeperiods in publications such as The New York Times, Sports
Illustrated, The ChicagoTribune, Business Week, and TV Guide. This
will also be accomplished through theanalysis of televised game
coverage. These articles were chosen because they eitherdocumented
the NBA's history on television or they documented the league's
historyitself and provided insight into how the NBA was perceived
during those times. Articles will also be used to describe the key
games in the history of NBA televisioncoverage, as well as historical
publications about the NBA which also focus on thesegames. APA style
will be used for all publications used in this thesis. Each of the
games selected for analysis will be scrutinized in terms of
thepregame, halftime, postgame, and game coverage. Specifically, the
content of thehalftime and postgame shows will be examined to
determine how the 1980s telecastsdiffer from the '90s telecasts.
Analysis of the pregame section will be broken downinto four areas:
teases that start the telecasts, announcer introductions, and
playerinjuries and team introductions. The teases will be compared to
see how they have
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9changed since 1980. Announcer introductions and player injuries and
teamintroductions will also be analyzed to determine any differences
in coverage. During the games themselves, the criteria that will be
analyzed are thecommentary of the announcers, game themes the
announcers touch on, the graphicsused during the games, and the use
of replays and camera angles. Specifically, theanalysis of the
announcers will be compared to determine how calling the games
hasevolved over the last twenty years. Also, their analysis will be
examined for detail anddepth. Criticisms of the announcers will
provide background for the way they call thegames. Themes of the
games that announcers touch on during the course of a gamewill be
examined to determine how these themes are created and supported.
Graphics will be analyzed to determine how they have changed over the
years,and how sophisticated they have become. The use of replays,
which was pioneered byABC for its 1960s NFL telecasts, will be
analyzed as well. There will also be a focuson the number of replays,
times during the game when replays were used, and thevarious angles
used by the networks in their coverage. The analysis of these
gameswill also be supplemented by clips from the 1970s to further
examine the evolution ofNBA coverage. Theoretically, the 1970s and
1980s broadcasts should set the modelfor the nineties' broadcasts,
with the '90s' telecasts being the most sophisticated andmost
technologically advanced.Implications of StudyThe implications of
this study are that television changed the coverage ofbasketball in
mass media, and that the sport itself was changed by television. It
isexpected that through the course of the NBA's relationship with
television, the mediumhas affected the way sportswriters cover the
games as well as changing the way
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101. Jeffrey Meitrodt, "NBA's Popularity Concerns Owners," The Times-
Picayune 24 Jan.1997, p. S58. 2. Benjamin G. Rader, In its Own Image:
How Television Has Transformed Sports (NewYork: Free Press, 1984),
51, 85. 3. Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk
Games to the Age ofTelevised Sports (Upper Saddle Bridge, NJ:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1996), 270.4. Zander Hollander (ed.) & Alex
Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia (New York:Villard Books,
1989), 55.5. Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia (New
York: Villard Books, 1989), 61.6. Charles Paikert, "When Biasone Took
24 Seconds to Save the N.B.A.," The NewYork Times 28 Oct. 1984,
Section 5, p. 2.7. ibid, p. 2.8. Zander Hollander (ed.), The NBA's
Official Encyclopedia of Pro Basketball (New York:American Library
1981, 63).9. Michael L. LaBlanc, Professional Sports Team Histories
(Detroit: Gale Research Inc,1984, 78-79).10. Charles Paikert, "When
Biasone Took 24 Seconds to Save the N.B.A.," The New YorkTimes 28
Oct. 1984, Section 5, p. 2.11. The Associated Press, "Warriors Topple
Nats Five, 109-104," The New York Times 30March 1956, p. 15.12.
Benjamin G. Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed
TelevisedSports (NY: Free Press, 1984).broadcasters cover the games.
Specifically, there are three questions this researcherhopes to
answer in this study:1) How did television change the structure of
the NBA game itself, throughrule changes or expansion?2) How did
television change the way sportswriters covered the NBA and inwhat
ways did it change print journalism coverage?3) How has television
affected the way games are broadcast today? Notes
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1113. Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games
to the Age ofTelevised Sports (NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1996). 14.
National Association of Broadcasters, Sports on Television (Denver:
Bortz & Company,Inc, 1990).15. Mark Gunther, The House That Roone
Built: The Inside Story of ABC News (Boston:Little, Brown & Company
Inc., 1994).16. Bert Randolph Sugar, The Thrill of Victory: The
Inside Story of ABC Sports (New York:Hawthorn Books, Inc., 1978).17.
Michael L. LaBlanc, Professional Sports Team Histories: Basketball
(Detroit:Gale Research Inc. 1994). 18. ibid, p. 79.19. Zander
Hollander & Alex Sachare, The Official NBA Encyclopedia (New York:
VillardBooks, 1989).20. Roland Lazenby, The NBA Finals: A Fifty-Year
Celebration (Indianapoils: Masters Press,1996).21. Lindsey Nelson,
Hello Everybody, I'm Lindsey Nelson (New York: Beech Tree Books,1961).
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12CHAPTER 21940s-1950s: FROM NBA BEGINNINGS TO TELEVISION
BEGINNINGSWhen television became a major part of American culture in
the 1950s,sports programming was not considered to be essential to
network scheduling. The DuMont Television Network pioneered sports
programming, making football,basketball, and baseball a regular part
of its schedule. At first, writers and sportspromoters believed that
television would have an adverse affect on sports byhindering
attendance figures. This view would change at the end of the decade,
aswould the image of the National Basketball Association (NBA).When
the 1950s began, the NBA had been in existence for only four years.
The league received an early boost when four teams from the stronger
NationalBasketball League (NBL) defected to the NBA in 1949. The NBA
also made thetransition to television and the DuMont Network in 1953.
However, excessivefouling and a slow style of play threatened the
league's television future. A rulechange in 1955 sped up the game,
and may have saved the league as well. By theend of the 1950s, the
NBA emerged as a league with growth potential. Most ofthe teams were
in larger markets than they had been at the start of the decade,
andthe league changed networks to the National Broadcasting Company
(NBC) andmaintained its television presence.The first basketball game
that appeared on television was not even aprofessional game, but a
college game. NBC had cornered the market on televisedsports, airing
the first-ever baseball game, boxing match, tennis match, and
footballgame. All of these events were aired in 1939. One year later,
NBC added to itslist of firsts by broadcasting the first basketball
game, a college game between the
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13University of Pittsburgh and Fordham on February 28 in New York
City.1At thistime, the NBA had not even been formed. Instead, the
NBL, a forerunner of theNBA, was the preeminent professional league.
The league was made up offormerly independent clubs and clubs owned
by the Goodyear and FirestoneRubber companies of Akron, Ohio, and the
General Electric Company of FortWayne, Indiana. The NBA Is BornIn
1946, Walter Brown of Boston, Al Sutphin of Cleveland, and Ned
Irish,a major college promoter, were among the leaders who formed the
BasketballAssociation of America (BAA).2In just 10 years, college
basketball had made thejump from small gyms to big business.3College
doubleheaders at Madison SquareGarden had attracted a huge following,
and the college doubleheader became astrong attraction.4Professional
basketball teams had existed for nearly 50 years, yet were notin the
mainstream of sports.5Hockey, on the other hand, had been
somewhatsuccessful.6Owners of big city arenas who had a lot of open
dates purchasedhockey teams to fill seats, and these hockey teams
proved to be valuable assets.7This was the blueprint the BAA leaders
sought to follow, as well as to drawfrom the popularity of the
college game by recruiting graduating players. Theleaders met on June
6, 1946, to organize their new league. There were 11members of the
BAA, and all had access to large arenas.8Five were connectedwith
National Hockey League (NHL) clubs. Five others were tied to the
AmericanHockey League, the sport's top minor league. The 11th was
Mike Uline, who rannot a hockey team but an arena in Washington,
D.C.9Arthur Daley of The New
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14York Times noted the importance of the owners having access to
large arenas,writing that "This is an important distinction because
lack of adequate facilities hasbeen the main stumbling block for all
previous circuits."10Daley predicted that"the new league may not
click overnight. However, it cannot help but succeedeventually."11The
first game in modern professional basketball history took place
onNovember 2, 1946, with the New York Knicks playing Toronto in
Canada. However, over the next two seasons the BAA would struggle to
survive. The firstseason saw no universal radio coverage and little,
if any, coverage at all fromnewspapers except for home teams.12The
second season was even tougher, asDetroit, Cleveland, Toronto, and
Pittsburgh all folded.13The ProvidenceSteamrollers would fold the
next year after posting a 12-48 record.14The BAAwas sinking fast and
would need a boost to stay afloat.The boost came in the form of the
NBL, which was the more competitiveleague. NBL teams were based in
the Midwest, and it the teams had most of theestablished
professionals. The league also had the most important player: a 6-
10center from DePaul named George Mikan who played for the
Minneapolis Lakers. A writer for the Associated Press lamented that
the loss of the Lakers was the mostdevastating loss for the NBL, and
the loss of Mikan would be equally large. Already, it was noted in
The New York Times that, "Big George Mikan rates as oneof the game's
all time greats."15Just before the 1948-49 season, Minneapolis, led
by Mikan, along withRochester and Fort Wayne, joined the BAA. The top
players were now playing inthe biggest arenas in the biggest
publicity outlets.16This move changed the BAA,
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15and so did Mikan. An article in The New York Times
proclaimed, "Minneapolis'George Mikan broke every N.B.L. scoring
record last season and was the league'sbiggest individual drawing
card."17At a time when any player scoring more than20 points per game
was rare, Mikan averaged an unheard of 28.3 point per game(PPG) for
the season.18He won the scoring title, and the Lakers won their
firstchampionship in the BAA. The NBL, however, was dead. After the
loss ofMikan, the quality of the league had been reduced
considerably. The season wasplayed out, and six remaining franchises
were absorbed by the BAA the next year. The name of the unified
league became the NBA.By the time the 1950-51 season ended, the NBA
found itself in themainstream of major league sports for the first
time.19It had total access to all ofthe college stars, filling the
void left by the college scandals. In addition, therewere several top
players in the league, led by Mikan. Soon the television agewould
give the league a greater opportunity for expansion, and it would be
anobscure fourth network that would provide the NBA with its first
opportunity ontelevision.The DuMont NetworkIn 1937, an engineer named
Allen B. DuMont applied for and received anexperimental television
license. DuMont had been the vice president of theDeForest Radio
Company in 1931, and that year he started the Allen B.
DuMontLaboratories, Inc. From 1931 to 1936 DuMont's company would be
the only oneto mass produce cathode-ray tubes, which allowed a person
to see electronicimpulses graphically displayed. DuMont's company
became the first to
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16manufacture television sets, and soon the engineer began tinkering
in the field oftelevision and created his own network.20DuMont's
first television station, W2XVT, began transmitting fromPassaic, New
Jersey in February of 1939.21Until 1954, the DuMont TelevisionNetwork
would join NBC, CBS, and ABC as the networks of the nation.
DuMontwould also offer several innovations along the way.The network
established many television firsts, such as televising the
firstchildren's television series, the first soap opera and regularly
televised professionalfootball and basketball games.22Several
prominent figures would get their start onthe network, including Mike
Wallace (60 Minutes), Roone Arledge (president ofABC News), comedian
Ernie Kovacs, and Jackie Gleason.23The network was most innovate when
it came to televising sports. PeterKerr of The New York Times
wrote, "Relatively few people in the early 1950sknew or cared about
professional football."24They did not care, that is, until theDuMont
network began televising New York Giants games in 1952. The next
yearthe network expanded to covering other NFL teams on a weekly
basis.25TheDuMont Network's audience also grew when DuMont began
broadcasting NBAgames that same year.26For the 1953-54 season, the
NBA agreed that DuMont would carry 13regular season games at a cost
of $39,000. By this time, the league had already experimented with
television in local markets. As early as 1948-49, The New YorkTimes
reported that all Knicks games at Madison Square Garden would
betelevised locally.27The local station, WJZ-TV, also had exclusive
rights to televiseKnicks' playoff games.28However, the DuMont network
provided the league with
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17the opportunity to go national. The DuMont Television Network
folded in 1955,but DuMont had established that sports programming
could be a profitableventure. NBC soon picked up where DuMont left
off, and the NBA was back ontelevision.Sports on TelevisionNBC and
the NBA forged a contract that kept the league on television forthe
next seven seasons, from 1954-55 to 1961-62. However, NBA ratings
werelukewarm at best. There were few articles that examined the NBA's
developmenton television during this time, but there were several
articles related to the impacttelevision was having on sports,
particularly baseball and football.The initial concern sports
promoters had with television was that it wouldaffect the attendance
in stadiums. Time reported in its "Radio and TV"
sectionthat, "Michigan Athletic Director Fritz Crisler told
delegates: 'We're ready to throwout television. Video could damage
our gains seriously, and it is up to [us] to actimmediately.'"29This
same tone was taken in another article in Nation's
Businessentitled, "Sports Behind Glass." Again, sports promoters and
owners questionedwhether television would hurt attendance figures.
Revere McVay reported thatNed Irish, the Knicks owner, said
that "television--instead of being hostile to theGarden gates--
proclaims an event to a broader base of the public than any
othermedium."30Irish even conducted an experiment during the season
to see iftelevision did hurt attendance figures. He barred cameras
from the first half of theseason, then televised the second
half.31McVay reported that, "Nothing unusualwas noted during the
first half of the season. But advance sales jumped
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18considerably during the second half even in cases where one team
had its alluredimmed by losses."32McVay also wrote that televised
sports were also responsible for attractinga female contingent,
particularly in boxing and wrestling. This was confirmedwhen McVay
reported that "A sample audience in the Garden has revealed that
asmany as 42 percent will be female."33There was also the feeling
amongsttelevision executives that television would attract the
curious and educate them onthe fine points of whatever game they were
watching. Then actual attendance atthe games would improve as a
result.34McVay also noted that television had changed the role of the
sportscommentator. He wrote that while the radio announcer could
conceal his lack ofinsight by distorting the action and passing it
off as the truth, "TV reportingdemands competence and expert
evaluation."35He also wrote that the televisionaudience found out
that there was more to basketball than just putting the ball inthe
hoop. He cited that broadcaster Curt Gowdy, himself a former
basketballplayer, "pointed out different shooting styles, offensive
tactics and defensivecounters, adding to the suspense and judgment of
the viewers."36He concludedthe article by writing that television
would have the same effect on sports as radiodid. Namely, that
attendance would increase as television exposed more people tothe
games themselves.The same argument was carried out in a Business Week
article called, "TVDisrupts Sports Business." In the article, the
author wrote that television wasaffecting sports the same way it was
believed television had affected plummetingbox office numbers for
movies.37The author did conclude that in the long run
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19television would eventually pay off for sports in overall income--
mostly byattracting new fans.38The author added that the concern over
attendance figureswas enough to persuade the NBA to ban television
from all cities except for NewYork.39In "Sports and TV: What Next?",
the author noted that sports promotersrealized that television "had
increased the number of fans for all sports by themillions."40John
Lardner provided his own breakdown of sports on television inan
article entitled, "Sports on TV--A Critical Survey." Lardner examined
eachsport and his perceived notions about how television had impacted
those sports. Lardner's only assessment of basketball was, "I think
it's fair to say that watchingbasketball and hockey in person is
preferable to watching them on television."41The Shot ClockDuring the
early television years, the NBA was being affected by its imageas a
rough-and-tumble game. In the early '50s, fouling had increased
significantlyas the stalling game took its toll on the league. In
1954, NBC executives decidedto give the NBA a national showcase for
the playoffs, the Knicks against a risingpower in Boston in Madison
Square Garden. The result, however, damaged theleague's image and
paved the way for a major rule change. After 95 fouls "one ofthe
worst basketball games ever played"42was preempted by NBC. Accounts
ofthe game in The New York Times stated only that, "The Knicks
experienced whatwas simply the worst night of the season."43There was
no mention of the game'simpact on the national television audience or
the fact that NBC had preempted itscoverage. But according to Michael
LaBlanc, the league's television fortunes hadtaken a giant step
backward. After this episode and others like it, such as a 19-18
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20game played between Fort Wayne and Minneapolis in 1950, NBA owners
knew achange was needed or their league would cease to exist. Enter
Syracuse Nationalsowner Danny Biasone. For three years Biasone had
told anyone who would listenthat the league needed a shot clock to
eliminate the stalling game.44Biasoneexplained his reasoning:There
was no way we could stop the stalling and fouling without a
timeelement. Other sports had limits--in baseball you get three outs
to score, infootball you must make ten yards in four downs or you
lose the ball. But inbasketball, if you had a lead and a good ball
handler, you could playaround all night. The only way for the other
team to stop that was to grabhim and send him to the line. Then you'd
foul him back. It was dull. 45Biasone's idea was based on a test he
had run during the summer of 1954,in which he had some professionals
and a group of high school players participatein an experimental game
while he used a stopwatch. Biasone discovered that mostshots were
taken within 12 seconds, so he recommended that the clock be
24seconds because he figured that during a 48-minute game, each team
would have aminimum of 60 possessions.46The owners experimented in
the exhibition season, found Biasone's ideamade sense, and instituted
the 24-second clock for the 1954-55 season. Stallingwas prevented,
but there was still the matter of excessive fouling. So the Board
ofGovernors adopted a rule limiting the number of fouls per team per
quarter, afterwhich each foul became a shooting foul.47The two rules
were perfectcomplements.The immediate impacts of the new rule changes
were felt. Scoring jumpedthrough the roof as tactics and coaching
became less of a factor.48The playerswere finally free to do what
they did best, which was to score and show off the
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21skills that in time would make the NBA such an attractive
television commodity. During the first season with the shot clock,
NBA teams averaged 93.1 points pergame, an increase of 13.6 points
per game over the previous year. In 1955 theBoston Celtics became the
first team in league history to average over 100 pointsper game for
an entire season; three years later every team in the league
wouldbetter that mark.49However, none of the major newspapers
commented on the impact of therule change and only The New York Times
acknowledged the rule changes at all. The story simply said
that, "Emphasizing an effort to 'speed up play', the directorsof the
National Basketball Association adopted two rule changes
yesterday."50Thefact that the rule changes were ignored in the Los
Angeles Times, The ChicagoTribune, and The Washington Post indicated
the lack of coverage the leaguereceived at that time. Baseball and
football still ruled the sports pages, and the factthat there were no
NBA teams in those cities at the time also contributed to thelack of
newspaper coverage afforded to the NBA. Time magazine did analyze
theimplementation of the shot clock and how it affected the NBA. It
was reportedthat, "This new rule . . . has made the pro game a
better, faster, more excitingsport. In other years, 'freezing' the
ball in the late stages was the bane of thegame."51Despite the
success attributed to the new rules changes, new problemsemerged.
Rader argued that the new rule had made it difficult for fans to
getexcited until the last quarter of the game.52Rader felt that since
it was difficult forteams to build a lead and then "sit" on it, it
appeared the players were not exertingthemselves until the last
quarter.53He also wrote that if a team had a huge lead in
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22the last quarter, then that last quarter would be
unexciting.54Futhermore, Raderstated that if the score was close in
the middle of the last quarter, then what hadtranspired before was
insignificant.55Again, there was little newspaper ormagazine coverage
during the period to substantiate or refute Rader's claims.
Forwhatever reason, basketball was still not on par with football and
baseball as amajor sports league. But the implementation of the shot
clock proved to beinstrumental in the NBA Finals in 1955.Biasone's
rule change ended up benefiting his team, the Syracuse Nationals,most
of all. The Nats, as they were called, had fallen to the Minneapolis
Lakersand George Mikan in seven games in the 1950 NBA Finals. In 1954-
55, led bytheir Hall-of-Fame forward Dolph Schayes, Syracuse finally
won thechampionship, in seven games over the Ft. Wayne Pistons. The
irony was that theNats had to come back from a 17-point deficit in
the second quarter to win thetitle. If not for the shot clock, the
comeback would not have been possible, a factnot lost on Biasone. "If
it wasn't for the shot clock, it would have been the dullestgame in
history,"56he said. "Fort Wayne was up by 17. Under the old rules,
they'dhave gone into a stall. Then there'd have been a flurry of
fouls."57There was little newpaper coverage of how the presence of a
shot clockhad made Syracuse's victory possible. Both The Washington
Post and TheChicago Tribune simply reported the facts of the contest,
without evenacknowledging the fact that without the shot clock
Syracuse's comeback would nothave been possible. This was in keeping
with the notion that the NBA simply wasnot on the level of football
and baseball in the mainstream of sports fans.
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23Television CoverageThe NBA produced only modest revenues on
television, due in part to thefact that the New York Knicks were
unable to field a winning team.58BenjaminRader, in his book In Its
Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sport,argued that Ned
Irish, the Knicks owner, was so abrasive and irritating to the
otherowners that he was unable to get their help in building a strong
franchise. That andill-advised trades and poor drafting helped to
doom the Knicks in the mid-1950s. Rader further argued that a strong
franchise in New York would have producedmore lucrative contracts for
the league as well as increasing the NBA's
overallattendance.59Newspapers of the time did not provide any
analysis of how Irish ran theKnicks during this period. In fact, the
NBA was rarely in the sports pages, andwhen it was the New York Times
usually provided only accounts of the gamesthemselves. There was no
analysis of strategy or management moves or theinfluence of
television on the game.In 1956, the first NBA Finals game was
nationally televised, Game One ofthe Philadelphia-Fort Wayne series.
The NBA appeared to be on its way ontelevision, but former NBC
broadcaster Lindsey Nelson recalled how everyone inthe league was
still learning to cope with the young medium. It seemed
thatcommercial time-outs were a source of problems in those early
days. Nelson wrotein his autobiography, Hello Everybody, I'm Lindsey
Nelson, that commissionerPodoloff had an answer:
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24He (Podoloff) was traveling to all the televised games to be sure
thateverything went well. He knew that the future of the sport lay in
itssuccess on the tube. . . And when television needed a time-out,
the stagemanager would tell Podoloff. He would then walk briskly
around behindthe bench, tap one coach on the shoulder, and say, 'Call
time out.'. . . That'show time-outs were handled.60By the 1957-58
season the NBA had emerged as a league with growthpotential. This was
supported by the fact that the Fort Wayne Pistons moved toDetroit and
the Rochester Royals moved to Cincinnati. Only three years
earlier,half of the league's teams had been based in cities of less
than 1,000,000 people;now only the Syracuse Nationals were in that
category.61The NBA image wasalso boosted by the influx of new stars
that drove gate receipts and salaries up, andit made the league's
television prospects appealing.An article in TV Guide, "Hooping it Up
For Television," examined theimportance of television to the NBA. In
it the author wrote that, "Networkcoverage of pro basketball not only
has spread the fame of the sport but hasincreased the stature of the
individual players."62The result was that major citieswere sending
Commissioner Podoloff applications to join the league.
Podoloffattributed this to television. He said that "'All this
interest has suddenly come upsince the games have been on network
TV.'"63The NBA was scheduling games innon-league cities, which
allowed for audience TV build-ups in promoting thereturn of college-
area stars such as Bill Russell (San Francisco), Elgin Baylor
(Seattle), and Slater Martin (Texas). Also, owners continued to voice
their disdainfor televising home games. Celtics president Walter
Brown said that "'on the daysthe games were televised from Boston
Garden, we drew less than 5,000 fans. Theother Garden playoff games
averaged 12-13,000 fans.'"64
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Page 32
251. "Tune in to the history of sports TV," USA Today 3 Dec. 1991, p.
3C.2. Zander Hollander (ed.) & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA
Encyclopedia (New York:Villard Books, 1989), 39.3. ibid, p. 39.There
was also criticism of the broadcasts themselves from players
andcoaches. Celtic coach Red Auerbach said that he did not feel NBA
telecasts wereas good as they should have been. He added that, "'They
should give the viewersmore at halftime. More interviews with
players, coaches, and officials.'"65BobCousy added that he felt there
were not enough close-ups of players during thegames. He said, "'The
expressions of emotion (on a penalty) or anguish (when ashot is
missed) would bring more tension to the telecasts.'"66Despite the
criticismsfrom owners, players, and coaches, the NBA continued its
relationship with NBCinto the 1960s.ConclusionThe 1950s were a time
of experimentation for the NBA on television; infact all of
television was experimental at the time. The league gained its
firsttelevision exposure only to be undone by its slow pace and
propensity for excessivefouling. Biasone's shot clock saved the game
and revitalized it on television. TheNBA made the move to NBC after
the DuMont network folded in 1954, and theleague made small strides
on the new medium. By the end of the decade, theleague and television
had forged a partnership that would last, despite all of theproblems
the league would endure, through the next four decades.Notes
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Page 33
264. ibid, p. 39.5. ibid, p. 39.6. ibid, p. 39.7. ibid, p. 40.8.
ibid, p. 40.9. ibid, p. 40.10. Arthur Daley, "Short Shots in Sundry
Directions," The New York Times 1 Nov. 1946, p.28.11. ibid, p. 28.12.
Zander Hollander (ed.) & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA
Encyclopedia (NewYork: Villard Books, 1989), 41.13. ibid, p. 44.14.
ibid, p. 44.15. The Associated Press, "3 Quintets Ready to Change
Leagues," The New York Times 9May 1948, Section 5, p. 7.16. Zander
Hollander (ed.) & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia
(NewYork: Villard Books, 1989), 47.17. The Associated Press, "Four
Pro Quintets Jump to New Loop," The New York Times 11May 1948, p.
34.18. Zander Hollander (ed.) & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA
Encyclopedia (NewYork: Villard Books, 1989), 47.19. ibid, p. 57.20.
Philip J. Auter & Douglas A. Boyd, "DuMont: The Original Fourth
Television Network,"The Journal of Popular Culture 29 (Winter 1995):
63.21. ibid, p. 64.22. ibid, p. 68.23. Peter Kerr, "A Network of the
Past Could Be A Model for the Future," The New YorkTimes 3 June 1984,
Sect. 2, p. 27, col. 1.24. ibid, p. 27.
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2725. ibid, p. 27.26. ibid, p. 27.27. "The News of Radio", The New
York Times 19 May 1948, p. 54.28. ibid, p. 54.29. "Air Wave of the
Future," Time 30 Jan. 1950, p. 66.30. Revere McVay, "Sports Behind
the Glass," Nation's Business Sept. 1950, p. 44.31. ibid, p. 44.32.
ibid, p. 44.33. ibid, p. 45.34. ibid, p. 45.35. ibid, p. 86.36. ibid,
p. 86.37. "TV Disrupts Sports Business," Business Week 27 Jan. 1951,
p. 52. 38. ibid, p. 52.39. ibid, p. 52. 40. "Sports and TV: What
Next?" Business Week 16 June 1951, p. 24.41. John Lardner, "Sports on
TV--A Critical Survey," The New York Times Magazine 25Dec. 1955, p.
27.42. Michael L. LaBlanc, (ed.), Professional Basketball Teams:
Basketball, (Detroit: GaleResearch Inc., 1994), 78.43. Joseph M.
Sheehan, "Celtics Trounce Knickerbockers in First Game," The New
YorkTimes 17 March 1954, p. 37.44. Lazenby, Roland, The NBA Finals: A
Fifty-Year Celebration (Indianapolis: MastersPress, 1996), 59.45.
Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia (New York: Villard
Books, 1994),61-62.46. Roland Lazenby, The NBA Finals: A Fifty-Year
Celebration (Indianapolis: Masters Press,1996), 59.
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2847. Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia (New York:
Villard Books, 1994),62.48. Roland Lazenby, The NBA Finals: A Fifty-
Year Celebration (Indianapolis: Masters Press,1996), 60.49. Alex
Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia (New York: Villard
Books, 1994),62.50. "Basketball Loop Changes 2 Rules," The New York
Times 24 April 1954, p. 23.51. "24 Seconds to Shoot," Time 20 Dec.
1954, p. 56.52. Benjamin G. Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television
Transformed Sports (New York:Free Press, 1984), 146.53. ibid, p.
147.54. ibid, p. 147.55. ibid, p. 147.56. Roland Lazenby, The NBA
Finals: A Fifty-Year Celebration (Indianapolis: Masters Press,1996),
67.57. ibid, p. 67.58. Benjamin G. Rader, In Its Own Image: How
Television Has Transformed Sports, (NewYork: Free Press, 1984),
146.59. ibid, p. 146.60. Lindsey Nelson, Hello Everybody, I'm Lindsey
Nelson (New York: Beech Tree Books,1985), 261.61. Zander Hollander
(ed.), & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia (NewYork:
Villard Books, 1989), 72.62. "Hooping it Up For Television," TV Guide
7 Feb. 1959, p. 22.63. ibid, p. 22.64. ibid, p. 23.65. ibid, p.
23.66. ibid, p. 23.
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29CHAPTER 3THE 1960S: A TURBULENT DECADE FOR THE NBAIn the 1960s
there was more of a focus for writers on the relationshipbetween
sports and television than there was for the NBA and television. In
theNBA, franchise moves were dictated by market size, although
reporters during thattime never expressed that. For example, the
Lakers and Hawks moved from smallmarket cities Minneapolis and St.
Louis to Los Angeles and Atlanta, respectively. Yet none of the major
newspapers discussed the fact that Atlanta and Los Angeleswere better
television markets than St. Louis and Minneapolis. The NBA also faced
a challenge from two upstart leagues, the ABL and theABA. The ABL
folded after only a year-and-a half, but the ABA, which started
in1967, would battle the NBA for college and professional talent. The
league wasunceremoniously dropped from NBC in 1962, but with a new
commissioner theNBA found a home on ABC. League television fortunes
were on the rise,culminating with the Knicks' championship season of
1969-70. Sports on TelevisionIn the early 1960s, writers were still
examining the relationship betweentelevision and sports. James Tuite
of The New York Times argued that the adventof television had created
the need for insightful analysis, and networks soon turnedto former
athletes to describe the action to viewers.1Tuite wrote that, "Some
(former athletes) of them lack a mellifluous voice and a smooth
delivery, but theirknow-how, their enthusiasm and their love for the
game have brought a newdimension to broadcasting."2In 1966, ABC
Sports President Roone Arledge of
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30ABC wrote that "Physically, professional basketball is an excellent
sportfortelevision; it's played in a confined area and the cameras
can be placed to showthe agility, finesse, and contact."3Arledge also
wrote that one of the growingproblems was that there was a feeling
that everything that occurred before the last10 minutes of the game
was inconsequential.4Arledge later wrote the theory wasinaccurate,
unless a person wanted to see the results or wanted to bet on the
game. He added that the principal weakness of basketball was that the
commentators didnot educate the public well enough on the subtleties
of basketball strategy, as theydid in football. Arledge contended
that this was difficult since there was no naturalbreak in
basketball, because the action was constant. There was also a
backlash by writers during the 1960s against the TVtimeout and the
overcommercialization of sports. An article in Newsweek called"Breaks
in the Game," cited the example of Celtic player-coach Bill Russell
beingfined $50 during the 1966 season for refusing to call a TV-
ordered timeout in themidst of a Celtic rally against the
Philadelphia 76ers.5Richard L. Tobin arguedthat sports should be
returned to the journalists from Madison Avenue in aSaturday Review
article called, "Time Outs and Other Nonsense in TV Sports."6William
Johnson described the impact television had on sports in an
articlecalled, "TV Made it All A New Game." Johnson contended
that "in the past 10years sport in America has come to be the
stepchild of television. . . "7Johnsonmaintained that television
money was responsible for the high salaries earned by theathletes, as
well as keeping great franchises afloat that would otherwise
gobankrupt.8Johnson also described how television dictated franchise
shifts in eachof the major sports. The Milwaukee Braves, Minneapolis
Lakers, and Chicago
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31Cardinals all shifted locations almost entirely because of the
prospects oftelevision.9He added that in 1969, there were 87 major
league franchises inbasketball, football, baseball, and hockey. Just
a decade earlier, there were only42.10NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle
said himself that without television, half ofthe NFL's 26 teams would
not exist and the rest would be struggling.11Johnsonended by
describing how baseball had been affected by television in terms of
thesport's loss in popularity.NBABy the time the 1960-61 season
arrived, there was one major geographicalchange in the NBA. The
Lakers moved from Minneapolis to Los Angeles as theleague expanded
westward. The irony was that it was the prospect of a rivalleague
sprouting on the west coast that forced NBA owners to accept the
move. Following the glory days of Mikan, the Lakers were losing so
much money thatthey were forced to sell off their players to meet
expenses.12Then Lakermanagement learned that major league baseball
was moving a franchise toMinneapolis.13Team owner Bob Short knew the
competition would be too muchfor the Lakers, so he asked the league
to move the franchise to the recentlyconstructed 14,000-seat
SportsArena in Los Angeles.14Originally the league owners turned down
the request, 7-1, but then theyheard that Abe Saperstein, the founder
of the Harlem Globetrotters, hadannounced plans to form the American
Basketball League (ABL).15None of theowners wanted the ABL to get a
head start in establishing franchises in the vastwestern market, so
they voted 8-0 to allow Short to move the team to LosAngeles.16Hence,
the NBA's westward expansion was born from necessity. None
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32of the newspapers noted that the Lakers' move to Los Angeles might
have hadsomething to do with the fact that Los Angeles was a far
larger market thanMinneapolis. Also, Sports Illustrated did not cover
the franchise relocation at thetime it occurred.The ABLIn 1961, Abe
Saperstein's vision of a basketball league came to fruition,when, the
first ABL game was ever played. Melvin Durslag explained in a TVGuide
article entitled, "Keeping One Eye on the Basket, the Other On TV",
thatSaperstein's principal reason for forming the rival league was to
exact revenge onhis NBA counterparts.17Durslag wrote that Saperstein,
the owner of the HarlemGlobetrotters, had noticed that Los Angeles
was "shockingly devoid" ofprofessional basketball.18Durslag added
that, "With the encouragement of severalowners in the National
Basketball Association, who professed to be his friends,Saperstein
tried to establish an NBA franchise in the city."19. Saperstein's
reasonsfor wanting to establish a team in Los Angeles were that the
Dodgers, who hadmoved from Brooklyn in 1958, were flourishing,
professional football was alsoprospering in Los Angeles, and race
tracks were setting attendance records.20LosAngeles was an untapped
gold mine as far as Saperstein was concerned, and hewanted to be the
one to place an NBA franchise there.But Saperstein said he was
betrayed by the owners when they switchedtheir allegiance to Bob
Short and the floundering Minneapolis franchise.
Enraged,Saperstein "resolved to teach the NBA a lesson."21He started
the ABL in 1961,featuring teams in eight cities (including Honolulu),
with Saperstein serving as theowner of the Chicago franchise and as
the league commissioner.22
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33Durslag also wrote that the NBA hoped the ABL would disappear by
nextseason, because if it didn't, its chances of landing a national
television deal wouldbe enhanced.23In 1961-62, the ABL had appeared
on regional and local television,conflicting at times with NBA games
on television.24And since the ABL playoffsbegan in mid-March, around
the same time as the NBA playoffs began, there was achance that they
would conflict again on television.25It was not the situation
NBAowners wanted. They obviously wanted only one product available to
the publicon television so that ratings would be strong and revenues
would be high. This iswhy the owners wished Saperstein and his rival
league would just go away.An NBA executive said he did not envision
the ABL landing a networkcontract anytime soon because "'it took us 5
years to sell it (the NBA)nationally.'"26The same executive said that
while the NBA had improved itsstanding on television in recent years,
the demand still wasn't great. He added,"'The league is coming up
very well, but sponsors still aren't knocking down thedoors to buy
it.'"27This more than any other comment showed the NBA'sprospects in
the early '60s. The league was making money, but there was no
greatdemand for the games. Durslag determined that the NBA received
$15,000 foreach nationally televised game during the season, while
the ABL received only$1,000 from local and regional
programming.Saperstein remained undaunted, saying:Of the thousands of
basketball players coming out of college each year,the NBA takes only
a handful--maybe 25 or less. This leaves all sorts offirst-class
material for us. We definitely have the product in our league. All we
need is promotion and exposure.28
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34However, the league never did land the network deal it sought.
After thefirst season, The New York Times reported that the ABL had
lost $1,500,000.29And with few of the top-name collegians ready to
try it, the ABL folded in just ayear-and-a half.30The NBA then
swooped in to sign ABL stars since the leaguehad folded.31NBA Changes
NetworksHowever, as the 1961 season ended, the NBA again found itself
on shakyground with television executives. Prior to the 1962 season,
NBC had refused torenew its contract with the NBA. Supposedly, it was
a numbers game: NBAratings for Saturday afternoon games dipped to 4.8
(9 million viewers) ascompared to Sunday afternoon NFL ratings of
10.4 (15 million viewers).32Onebig reason for the ratings slip was
that the NBA, in planning its schedule before theseason began, placed
its three weakest teams--Chicago, Syracuse, and Detroit--ontelevision
a total of 14 times. On the other hand, three of the best teams--
Boston,St. Louis, and Philadelphia--appeared a total of only seven
times.33Before the 1963-64 season began, there were major changes in
the NBA. The Warriors, who had the league's top gate attraction in
Chamberlain, movedfrom Philadelphia to San Francisco and the Western
Conference for $850,000.34The Chicago Packers, who had joined the
league in 1961, changed their name tothe Zephyrs and then moved to
Baltimore in midseason to become the Bullets.35The Syracuse Nationals
filled the void in Philadelphia and assumed the name of the76ers.
Now, for the first time, the NBA had all eight of its franchises in
majorcities.36Syracuse owner Biasone alluded to this when he
said, "'The area just doesnot have enough population to enable a
major team to flourish.'"37When the
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35season began, the league was back on network television thanks to
the assistanceof a new commissioner.Maurice Podoloff, the league's
first and only commissioner since 1946, wasreplaced by Walter
Kennedy. Kennedy had been an NBA publicity man and heretired from his
post as mayor of Stamford, Connecticut, to accept the job
ofcommissioner. Reportedly, the first question Kennedy was asked in
his firstinterview for the position was, "Do you think you can get us
back on nationalTV?"38Roone Arledge, the president of ABC sports at
the time, was looking forprogramming that could diminish the ratings
of "CBS Sports Spectacular", andgive Arledge's program "Wide World of
Sports" a boost with sponsors. Arledge's idea was to place live
programming in competition with CBS' tapedevents.39Hence, a
relationship with the NBA was forged.The league experimented that
season, out of necessity, with becoming thefirst sports league to air
games during prime time on a national level in America.40The result
would be 11 weeks on 60 stations for the NBA to peddle its product,
amove that other sports leagues would no doubt be watching
closely.41ABC paid amere $650,000 for the rights annually, which
showed how much of a struggle theleague was having on
television.42Ratings crept upward, from a 6.0 in 1965 to an8.2 in
1968, as basketball began to gain something of a foothold on
television (seeAppendix B).NBA ratings improved as the '60s wore on.
It was reported in AdvertisingAge that in 1966 there was a 26 percent
increase in average audience per minute of3,964,000 homes.43The
article in Advertising Age stated that ABC touted NBAtelecasts as the
most efficient sports buy for advertisers in television.44Attendance
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36had risen steadily in the previous four years, and in the first
four weeks of the 1966season it jumped 35 percent.45The NBA expanded
in 1966-67, adding a franchise in the potent mediamarket of Chicago,
the Bulls. It was reported in Advertising Age that the Bullshad
already reported several sellouts for their first season.46Due to all
the successthe NBA was enjoying, the league expanded again one year
later. In 1967-68, theNBA added two more expansion franchises, the
Seattle Supersonics and the SanDiego Rockets.47The Knicks moved into
a new and larger Madison SquareGarden; seating 19,500, and the Lakers
moved into the new 17,500-seat Forumbuilt by new owner Jack Kent
Cooke. In addition, the league's new televisioncontract with ABC now
was worth almost $1 million a year.48There was also another franchise
relocation in the NBA in 1968. BobKerner, the owner of the St. Louis
Hawks, had watched as his team strugglefinancially while playing in a
9,000-seat arena.49Kerner was quoted as saying,"'They (St. Louis)
just don't want our product here anymore.'"50So Kerner soldhis team
and the Hawks moved to Atlanta, their fourth home (after Tri-
Cities,Milwaukee, and St. Louis).51The ABAThe prosperity the league
was enjoying was not lost on several outsideobservers, who formed a
new rival league called the ABA. The ABA establishedfranchises in
major cities that had been spurned by the NBA. Dallas,
Denver,Houston, and Oakland were some of the original members of the
11-team league. The ABA gained instant credibility when it named NBA
legend George Mikan asthe first commissioner and when NBA star Rick
Barry signed with the Oakland
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37Oaks.52According to Leonard Koppett of The New York Times, the ABA
alsoreceived equal treatment from newspapers as the NBA.53As the 1968-
69 season began, there were more changes in store for theNBA, as well
as the ABA. Two more expansion teams, the Phoenix Suns and
theMilwaukee Bucks, joined the NBA.54A coin toss that the Milwaukee
Bucks wonended in the drafting of Lew Alcindor (Kareem Abdul-Jabbar),
the most highlytouted rookie in years. The only question was whether
the Bucks could signAlcindor, because his ABA rights were given to
the New York Nets in an effort toboost the league's prime
market.55The signing of Alcindor would have been a major coup for the
ABA and amajor loss for the NBA, but Alcindor was offered more money
initially by theBucks and he opted to play in the NBA. Newsweek saw
the failure of the ABA tosign Alcindor as a potential death knell for
the league.56An article called "BleakHouse" stated that, "Alcindor
had been the basis for ABA dreams of largecrowds,television revenues
and respectability. Without him, the league remainsdistinctly minor--
and its leaders loud and bitter."57Mikan resigned in July of 1969,
and Jack Dolph succeeded him.58Dolphwas a director of sports for CBS
before his hiring, and ABA officials made nosecret that was one of
the reasons why Dolph was hired. Jim Gardner, president ofthe ABA and
owner of the Carolina Cougars said, "'Jack will be out to sell
ourleague in TV, merchandising, new franchises and radio.'"59Writer
Sam Goldapernoted that "The A.B.A. considers a television contract
vital to its existence and thehiring of Dolph . . . may be the answer
to one of their chief problems."60
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38Dolph did succeed in getting the ABA All-Star Game to be
televisednationwide, and it was held in Indianapolis in front of a
crowd of over 11,000people.61However, the season's real story was in
the NBA, where the Knicks,seemingly overnight, had become
championship contenders. Finally, the NBA'smarquee team was ready to
lead them in the television age.The Knicks Become WinnersThe NBA had
struggled in New York since the early 1950s. Then, duringthe 1969-70
season, the Knicks captured the attention of basketball fans and
thenational media. Lawrence Shainberg wrote about the Knick
phenomenon in "AFan's Notes on the Amazing Knicks", which appeared in
The New York TimesMagazine. Shainberg wrote that "The media, because
they are a New York team,and because the Mets excitement has left
them with a lot of unattachedsuperlatives, are scrambling after them
in frenzy."62This sentiment was echoed in"You Gotta Have Heart" in
Newsweek, when it was written that, "The first 100games had
included . . . unprecedented national exposure--aided mightily by
NewYork's enormous concentration of media--that had given pro
basketball itsbrightestimage ever."63Shainberg added that there were
feature stories being prepared byevery national magazine, all the TV
networks, most of the local TV stations.64There were also four books
being written and two more in negotiation.65Shainberg added that the
Knicks' appeal to the fans was that, "In a game ofindividuals, they
are a community."66The Knicks culminated the season with
achampionship, and soon writers began pondering if basketball was
going tobecome the "Sport of the '70s."
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391. James Tuite, "From Playing Field to Announcing: Then and Now,"
The New York Times 11Aug. 1963, Sect. 2, p. 13.2. ibid, p. 13.3.
Roone Arledge, "It's Sport, It's Money, It's TV," Sports Illustrated
25 April 1966, p. 103.4. ibid, p. 103.5. "Breaks in the Game,"
Newsweek 5 June 1967, p. 66.6. Richard L. Tobin, "Time Outs and Other
Nonsense in TV Sports," Saturday Review, 9Dec. 1967, p. 58.7. William
Johnson, "TV Made It All A New Game," Sports Illustrated 22 Dec.
1969, p. 88.8. ibid, p. 88.9. ibid, p. 92.10. ibid, p. 92.11. ibid,
p. 92.12. Roland Lazenby, The NBA Finals: A Fifty-Year Celebration
(Indianaoplis: Masters Press,1996), 96.13. ibid, p. 96.ConclusionThe
1960s had started poorly for the NBA, but by the end of the decadethe
league was enjoying its greatest national recognition. However, the
NBA wasexpanding too rapidly, and with a rival league the talent base
was spread too thin.67Costs soared but revenues didn't, and while
professional basketball in new marketswould be a tremendous asset a
decade later, it was a huge burden during the1970s.68The league would
endure a dark decade, falling so far that the NBAFinals would be
pushed into the nether regions of televised sports--tape-delay.
Itwould not be until the 1980s that the league could reverse itself
on the tube, andwith it change its image completely.Notes
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Page 47
4014. ibid, p. 96.15. ibid, p. 96.16. ibid, p. 96.17. Melvin
Durslag, "Keeping One Eye on the Basket, the Other on TV," TV Guide
24 March1962, p. 4. 18. ibid, p. 4.19. ibid, p. 4. 20. ibid, p. 4.21.
ibid, p. 4. 22. ibid, p. 5.23. ibid, p. 5.24. ibid, p. 5.25. ibid, p.
5.26. ibid, p. 5.27. ibid, p. 5.28. ibid, p. 5.29. "$1,500,000 Lost
By A.B.L.," The New York Times 13 April 1962, p. 45.30. Zander
Hollander (ed.), & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia
(NewYork: Villard Books, 1989), 83.31. "NBA May Try To Sign ABL
Stars," The Washington Post 2 Jan. 1963, p. A21.32. William
Leggett, "Growing to Greatness", Sports Illustrated 29 Oct. 1962, p.
41.33. ibid, p. 41.34. "Wilt & Warriors Move to S.F. for $850,000,"
Los Angeles Times 24 May 1962, Part III,p. 1.35. Zander Hollander
(ed.) & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia (NewYork:
Villard Books, 1989), 88.36. ibid, p. 88.
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Page 48
4137. Michael Strauss, "N.B.A. Approves Syracuse Shift," The New York
Times 23 May 1963,p. 45.38. Bert Randolph Sugar, The Thrill of
Victory (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1978), 122.39. ibid, p. 123.40.
William Leggett, "The NBA Gets A New Image," Sports Illustrated 28
Oct. 1963, p. 31.41. ibid, p. 31.42. Benjamin G. Rader, In Its Own
Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports (NewYork: The Free
Press, 1984), 147. 43. "Basketball Waits in Wings to Fill in
Broadcast Sports Scene After Jan. 1," AdvertisingAge 21 Nov. 1966, p.
3.44. ibid, p. 4.45. ibid, p. 4.46. ibid, p. 4.47. The Associated
Press, "Team Will Start in 1967-68 Season," The New York Times 21Dec.
1966, p. 50.48. Zander Hollander (ed.), & Alex Sachare (ed.), The
Official NBA Encyclopedia (NewYork: Villard Books, 1989), 100.49.
ibid, p. 104. 50. The Associated Press, "St. Louis Losing Hawks to
Atlanta," The Washington Post 4 May1968, p. D2.51. Zander Hollander
(ed.) & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia (NewYork:
Villard Press, 1989), 104.52. ibid, 100.53. Leonard Koppett, "The New
League: Early Evaluation," The New York Times 26 Nov.1967, p.
S3.54. "Milwaukee and Phoenix Obtain N.B.A. Franchises For Next
Season," The New YorkTimes 23 Jan. 1968, p. 30.55. Zander Hollander
(ed.), & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia (NewYork:
Villard Books, 1989), 106.56. "Bleak House," Newsweek 14 April 1969,
p. 98.
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Page 49
4257. ibid, p. 98.58. Sam Goldaper, "Dolph, a TV Sports Executive,
Named Commissioner of A.B.A.," TheNew York Times 30 Oct. 1959, p.
61.59. ibid, p. 61.60. ibid, p. 61.61. Zander Hollander (ed.) & Alex
Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia (NewYork: Villard Books,
1989), 113.62. Lawrence Shainberg, "A Fan's Note on the Amazing
Knicks," The New York TimesMagazine 25 Jan. 1970, 34.63. "You Gotta
Have Heart," Newsweek 18 May 1970, p. 93.64. Lawrence Shainberg, "A
Fan's Note on the Amazing Kincks," The New YorkTimes Magazine 25 Jan.
1970, p. 34.65. ibid, p. 34.66. ibid, p. 38.67. Roland Lazenby, The
NBA Finals: A Fifty-Year Celebration (Indianapolis: Masters
Press,1996), 116. 68. ibid, p. 116.
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43CHAPTER 4THE 1970s: A DECADE OF UNFULFILLED EXPECTATIONSThe New
York Knicks had finally focused national attention on the NBA,and as
the 1970s started, there was optimism that the league would finally
find itsniche in television. NBA ratings had been climbing steadily
since the league hadsigned its contract with ABC, and the NBA finally
had a winner in New York. There were new stars and better athletes
than there had ever been before, but theNBA seemed to be expanding
too rapidly for its own good. The league expanded for the third time
in three years in 1970, with theaddition of Buffalo, Cleveland, and
Portland. In addition to the 11 teams in theABA, this dilution of
talent would hurt the league through much of the decade. Bythe end of
the 1970s, the NBA and ABA would merge, but the league's imagewould
be tarnished. The NBA would become so unattractive to television
viewersthat by the end of the decade the Finals would languish on
tape-delay, only to beseen by basketball's true fans. Thus, a decade
of promise deteriorated into adecade of unfulfilled
expectations.ExpansionThe NBA expanded in 1970 to include three new
teams in Buffalo,Cleveland, and Portland. The Cincinnati Royals moved
to Kansas City in 1972because of poor attendance.1New Orleans became
the eighteenth team in 1974-75, as the franchise's owners paid a
hefty $6.15 million to NBA owners.2However, writers saw these moves
as overexpansion, that diluted the talent in thegame. Joseph Durso of
The New York Times noted that the challenge of new
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Page 51
44leagues in basketball, football, and hockey added to the
problems.3Dursoaddedthat matters were worsened when money began
pouring into sports fromtelevision.4This only added to the problems
the league would be facing at the endof the decade."The Sport of the
1970s"The 1970s started well enough, with the NBA enjoying new
attentioncourtesy of the Knicks' championship. William Marsano of TV
Guide went as faras predicting that the game would become the sport
of the '70s, much the same asfootball had been the sport of
the '60s.5The big reason was television. It wasargued that basketball
was a more attractive television commodity because it was agame of
constant motion.6There was finesse and skill, as well as the
occasionaltouches of power, the ball was easily visible, and
basketball games were neverrained out.7The assimilation of college
players into the NBA ranks was cited as anotherreason for the
league's growth potential because fans would have an interest
infollowing their favorite players in the pros. Also, the NBA
contract for ABC wasworth only $3 million in 1969. Baseball, in
contrast, cost $16.5 million and theNFL cost CBS about $22 million--
each for one season.8This meant that ABC hadmade a bargain in
purchasing the rights to the NBA, considering the league'ssteady
ratings. But Durslag saw potential problems the league would have
toovercome to become a major league. Among these problems were
erraticofficiating, agonizingly long road trips, small arenas, and
the NBA's expansionplan. These problems, as well as the threat of a
merger with the ABA, were seenas potential cripplers. Of course, all
of these problems were related to television,
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Page 52
45where the fans could see for themselves the quality of arenas,
officiating and playbetween two road-weary teams. Durslag's concerns
would become prophetic asthe NBA experienced a difficult decade on
television.Commissioner Walter Kennedy openly discussed the impact
television hadon the NBA in the TV Guide article, "They'll Move on to
Athens . . . If They EverGet Cleveland Straightened Out." In the
article Kennedy predicted that "in 10years the NBA will have four
teams in Europe playing full schedules."9This,Kennedy said, would be
possible only through television, the same way Americanspicked up the
jump shot and behind-the-back dribble when the NBA was firstbroadcast
in 1952.10Kennedy also discussed how the league's ratings hadimproved
its standing with ABC.In 1972, John Carol refuted the claim that
basketball would be the "Sportof the '70s," in "TV Talk" in Sports
Illustrated. Carol cited that football ratingshad improved by 10
percent since 1971, while basketball ratings, despite a
slightincrease, had slipped relative to other attractions.11Carol
noted that there was athin profit margin for ABC's NBA telecasts, and
he wrote that the network wasconsidering adjustments to change that.
Regional coverage was a possibility, sinceit had worked so well for
football, but the costs go up with each game added. Carol also
contrasted the NBA's television problems with college
basketball'sbooming ratings. He also wrote there was another
development in basketballpunctured the myth of it becoming the sport
of the decade. That came when theABA had to cancel a series it had
planned amongst four of its best franchises--Carolina, Indiana,
Kentucky, and Virginia.12The reason given for the cancellationwas a
lack of sponsors.13
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46Criticisms of CoverageAs the 1970s began, ABC began to come under
fire for what some saw asits less-than-spectacular presentation of
the NBA. This problem would persistthroughout the decade, even as the
NBA changed networks. Frank Deford, in "TVTalk" in Sports
Illustrated, wrote in 1971 that, "It is unlikely that sport has
everbeen presented so dismally in prime time as it was in this year's
coverage of theNBA championships on ABC."14Chris Shenkel, ABC's play-
by-play man, wascriticized by Deford for his failure to appreciate
the nuances of the game.15Defordalso criticized ABC for its halftime
shows, of which he wrote, "Since ABC offerednothing innovative or
imaginative to fill these voids, the result was a series ofdreary
courtside exchanges, many in the form of congratulations and
complimentsfrom people like the NBA commissioner and various club
owners."16Deford also wrote that ABC's mistake was that it covered an
NBA gamethe same way it covered a football game. This was the same
criticism RooneArledge had made a few years earlier in an article he
had written in SportsIllustrated. Deford, like Arledge, believed that
covering basketball in the sameway as football was a mistake because
they were two different games. Because much of what happened in
basketball occurred away from the ball, it was importantin Deford's
mind that ABC provide the necessary insight into the game's
subtleties.Instead, Deford wrote that neither ABC's announcers nor
cameras wereable to isolate the important phases of the game, and
that replays were used only tosecond-guess officials rather
than "capture the grace and precision of theperformers."17Dave
Kindred agreed with Deford's assessment about the subtletiesof the
game being lost in television in an article in The Washington Post
called,
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47"Tube Boob Can't Cope With NBA; Subtleties Too Rich for TV."
Kindred addedthat too much happened too quickly during the course of
a game, and the speed atwhich the game was played did not allow for
much reflection.18At the end of the 1973-74 season, CBS and the NBA
agreed to a 3-year,$27 million contract (see Appendix B). ABC, which
had nurtured the NBA backto respectability, was outraged. The network
took the NBA to court but lost,charging that the NBA had not
negotiated "in good faith".19Arledge shot back bycounterprogramming
his "Wide World of Sports" on Sunday against CBS' NBAtelecasts.20The
NBA may have changed networks, but the criticisms of networkcoverage
persisted. William Leggett commented on what observers felt was
CBS'mishandling of NBA telecasts in an article called, "Slam-Dunked
By the Ratings" inSports Illustrated. Leggett wrote that NBA
telecasts had become an "unpleasantexercise" with the playing of so
much loud music, the hiring and firing of so manyannouncers that
viewers got no feeling of stability; a pregame show that consistedof
mini-teams of celebrities and active and former NBA players competing
againsteach other; and a halftime show called "Horse".21Even NBA
players such as BobLanier agreed that there should have been a
continuity of announcers, so fans couldrelate to them.22John Papanek
also criticized CBS' coverage of the NBA in a SportsIllustrated
article called, "There's An Ill Wind Blowing for the NBA."
Papanekindicted CBS for "treating its telecasts as little more than a
bridge between arefrigerator race and a golf tournament"23Papanek
also criticized the network fortelevising a slew of regional games
instead of one big national game, thus
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48fragmenting the ratings even further. He also wrote that CBS had
erred by billinggames as players against players rather than teams,
such as "Dr. J vs. Rick Barry",and "David Thompson vs. Pistol
Pete."24Also, according to Papanek, there wastoo much attention
focused on the slam dunk, with replay after replaydemonstrating the
action.25Papanek also agreed with Leggett's observation thatCBS'
halftime shows were devoted to slamdunk or Horse contests and needed
tobe replaced.26CBS Struggles to Improve CoverageThe NBA took notice
of the criticism and managed to persuade CBS toeliminate its halftime
show and replace it with human-interest shows about
theplayers.27There also was a possibility that CBS would start
televising a singlenational game on Sunday afternoons. CBS also tried
to reverse the NBA'sdeclining ratings with a variety of adjustments.
William Leggett reported in "Basketfuls of Information" in
SportsIllustrated that the network first hired a reporter named Sonny
Hill to cover theleague on a full-time basis.28CBS also put
microphones and cameras on teamhuddles to allow viewers to see and
hear coaches at work.29Leggett reported thatthose attempts to present
the game were for the most part unsuccessful, but itproved that CBS
was on the right track.30Leggett also analyzed CBS' latest moveto
improve its coverage, a halftime segment called "Red Auerbach on
Roundball",featuring the legendary Celtic coach. Auerbach's task,
according to Leggett, wasto: 1) strive to educate CBS' viewers about
the complexities of the pro game, 2) attempt to teach young players
how to improve their games, 3) subtly introduceaudiences to an all-
star team based on Red's criteria on facets of the game such as
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49screening and passing.31Leggett went on to blame CBS' low ratings
for the NBAon its announcers, former greats Elgin Baylor and Oscar
Robertson, whom hecalled "less than brilliant".32In 1977, the NBA
mounted a short-lived comeback in the ratingsdepartment. NBA
telecasts on CBS went head-to-head with college basketballtelecasts
on NBC. William Leggett, in "Bushels of Baskets on Sunday" in
SportsIllustrated, wrote that the early returns showed that CBS was
winning the ratingswar.33Leggett wrote that one of the reasons for
the NBA's good showing was thatits recent contract with CBS was the
most liberal ever between a network anda major league.34This was
because CBS was able to regionalize its telecasts (up tosix games on
Sundays), or run one national game if it felt the matchup
warrantednational coverage.35CBS also could stage doubleheaders and
switch from a one-sided game to a close one. Leggett speculated that
all of those changes wouldpreclude the network showing any
meaningless games that had been scheduled farin advance.36Ratings
DeclineHowever, the ratings improvement did not last long, because
just one yearlater, NBA ratings had plummeted. Leggett reported that
after the 1977 NBAFinals between Philadelphia and Portland had
achieved record NBA ratings, CBShad seen a sharp decline in
1978.37The results were seen in the 1978 NBA Finals,when ratings
declined 22 percent.38Leggett also noted that certain observers
predicted that if ratings did notrise sharply in the next season,
professional basketball could go the way hockey didon NBC and the NBA
may eventually have found itself without a lucrative
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50television contract.39Leggett also cited as an example of NBA
problems the factthat the CBS affiliate in Atlanta, WAGA-TV, did not
carry any NBA games andhadn't for the previous five years.40This
occurred despite the fact the city had anNBA franchise in the Atlanta
Hawks.Leggett also noted that in a Variety issue that listed the top
730 ratedshows from September 1, 1977 to August 31, 1978, sports took
four of the firstfive spots and six of the top nine. However, the
deciding game of the NBA Finalstied for 442nd with such forgettable
shows as Peter Lundy & the Medicine HatStallion, The Hostage Heart,
and Country Night of the Stars.41The next-highestNBA prime-time
playoff game was only 619th.42The merger was supposed togive the NBA
new life by adding new stars and raising the quality of play.
However, as the 1970s drew to a close, the NBA was in desperate
troubleon television. By the late 1970s attendance for NBA games had
plummeted, ashad the league's television ratings. Ratings for NBA
telecasts were down 26percent from the previous year.43Things were so
bad for CBS that the firstregular-season telecast was beaten soundly
by everything the other networks hadto offer, such as boxing (ABC)
and college basketball (NBC).44Leggett and otherwriters offered
several reasons for the NBA's declining television fortunes.Leggett
first cited that in five of the nation's major television markets--
NewYork, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Boston--the teams
were either"dull and faceless" or not contenders.45He added that the
sixth, Philadelphia, had atroubled season and was eliminated before
the playoffs ended.46Critics posed thatone reason for the poor
ratings was that there were weak teams in the major mediamarkets.
This was especially damaging when those markets were already saturated
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51with local teams in high school and college basketball. The NBA
tried to assistCBS by allowing the network to choose any game it
wanted to broadcast, but toooften it was small market teams like the
Portland Trail Blazers that were in theplayoffs or won the
championship.47The argument was valid to an extent, because pro
football had taken offafter the New York Jets won the Super Bowl.
However, in the years since then,the Jets and the New York Giants had
struggled while the NFL remained popular.48This occurred at the same
time as the Knicks' fortunes had declined, and the NBA'stelevision
fortunes declined with them. Leggett also cited criticism from
observersthat there was a basic flaw in the structure of the game
which allowed the casualviewer to enjoy the essence of any NBA game
by simply watching the game's finaltwo minutes.49This was the same
criticism the NBA had faced since the 1960s,when Roone Arledge
attempted to refute it in anotherSports Illustrated article. Benjamin
Rader also cited this criticism in his book, InIts Own Image: How
Television Has Transformed Sports. Leggett added that it seemed that
there was too much basketball ontelevision. NBC aired Saturday
college doubleheaders, and on Sundays CBScarried NBA
doubleheaders.50Also, most independent stations aired both
localprofessional and college games.51This resulted in CBS trying
something new topull up its ratings. The first two games of the 1978
Conference Finals were airedat 11:30 p.m. Eastern Standard Time to
test the waters.52However, the problemsran deeper than network
competition and lack of interest in the large market teams. The NBA
was also suffering from image problems. NBA Image Problems
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52The NBA's decline on television resulted in the rehashing of old
questionsabout the league's problems. Writers began calling for the
league to shorten itsseason, since televised games were being
oversaturated with poor performances. For example, Al Stump cited the
poor play of the Los Angeles Lakers in anationally televised blowout
loss to the Bucks during the 1972-73 season in anarticle called, "Did
You Ever See A Dream Walking?" Stump added that "withintoday's 17-
team, country-beating schedule, poor play is frequent."53According
toSam Goldaper, the players were also critical when it came to the
league'sscheduling of televised games. One player, Bob Lanier, said
that college gamesaired on television were usually the best ones of
the week. He also said that it was"unfair and improper" to put a
Sunday afternoon game on with tired players. Thiswas because of teams
having to play a game on Saturday and then travel for anafternoon
game the following day. This resulted in a poor
product.54Stump'ssolution, of course, was to call for the NBA to
shorten its schedule. Dave Kindred agreed that the NBA season was too
long. He wrote thatwith 82 regular season games, a single game was
rendered meaningless in theoverall scheme of the season.55Kindred
also reasoned that if no one watched theNBA during the regular
season, why would they watch the playoffs.56Like othersbefore him,
Kindred felt that a 60-game season would make the games
moreinteresting and dramatic for viewers to watch. John Papanek also
believed that theseason was too long, and that with so many teams, a
team could play a differentteam each night, greatly reducing the
prospect of a rivalry. The times when a WiltChamberlain would battle
a Bill Russell 10 times a year were gone, so there was
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53very little drama left in the season.57These were just some of the
reasons criticstried to come up with to explain the league's
shortcomings on television.There was also the belief that escalating
player salaries and increased playermovement was adversely affecting
the NBA on television. Melvin Durslag wrotein a TV Guide article
called, "Masters of the Fast Break", that several players weremoving
constantly and thus fans were left having to identify with new
players fromseason to season. As an example, he cited that Kareem
Abdul-Jabbar had decidedhe no longer wanted to play for Milwaukee in
1975, and he was traded to theLakers for four players.58Durslag also
noted that the owners were paying playersand coaches outrageous
salaries that, when coupled with player gripes, served tofurther
alienate fans.59This alienation was believed to have affected even
TVviewers. It was confounding for Durslag to see that the league was
in decline at atime when the game was being played with more skill
than ever before.60JuliusErving felt he had been promised a salary
increase form Nets' owner Roy Boe, butwhen Boe refused to pay Erving
demanded to be traded. So Boe traded him to thePhiladelphia 76ers for
the hefty price of $3 million for five years.61This situationwas
indicative of the theory that NBA players were too greedy. Despite
theproblems, the NBA was able to re-sign with CBS in 1976 for two
years and $21million (see Appendix B).Benjamin Rader wrote that among
the problems the league had playerswere so big and blessed with such
offensive skills that scoring became too easy.62When the NBA allowed
for more physical contact to combat this, the league
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54suffered to find the right balance between finesse and
physicality.63There was alsocriticism that race played a factor in
the NBA's problems.The NBA in 1978-79 was almost 75 percent black,
and John Papanekspeculated that could be a reason for the league's
poor showing on television.64Rader made the same assessment in his
book, In Its Own Image: How TelevisionHas Transformed Sports. Seattle
player Paul Silas, also the president of thePlayers' Association,
argued that whites generally looked disfavorably on blackswho were
making large amounts of money if it appeared they were not
workinghard to make that money.65Golden State coach Al Attles said
that many peoplewhen describing the NBA style of play had called
it "undisciplined", which led himto believe the finger was being
pointed at a specific group of people. Whatever thereason, the NBA
had a major image problem in the late 1970s, one thatCommissioner
O'Brien sought to change by hiring an outside agency to handle
theNBA's public relations.In 1979, Sam Goldaper wrote in The New York
Times about the changesplayers had requested in light of the NBA's
declining attendance figures andtelevision ratings.66Representatives
of the league's 22 teams met and argued thatthere was a need for
better officiating and improved training of officials.
Goldaperreported that the President of the Players' Association said
that instant replays ontelevision were showing the number of calls
officials missed. He felt that this leftthe fan with the feeling that
the game was being totally dominated by the officials,and the players
wanted that concept to change.67
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55ABAThe ABA was enduring some difficult times of its own, and the
upstartleague would not finish the decade. First, Jack Dolph, the
former televisionexecutive whom the league had hired to secure a
network contract, resigned on Jun3, 1972. Dolph said it was because
of the impending merger between the twoleagues.68The Times reported
that Dolph had succeeded in lifting the league
torespectability.69Leonard Koppett of The New York Times argued that
the ABAfailed to land a network television deal because of its
demographic problems. Specifically, Koppett wrote that the ABA had
only one of its teams--the New YorkNets--in a major media market.70He
contrasted this with the fact that major leaguebaseball, the NFL, and
the NBA had all of their teams in the major markets.71Koppett wrote
that without the major markets, there was little to induce
televisionoutlets in those markets to carry the games.72In effect,
Koppett said that if ABAteams did not move into larger cities, than
the league would die.73Frank Deford cited the league's inability to
establish teams in major cities asa primary reason the ABA failed to
secure a national television contract.74TheABA hired seven
commissioners during its short history, all served with trying
tocreate a merger with the NBA or to obtain a national television
contract.75None ofthe commissioners succeeded, except for the last
one, Dave DeBusschere. Unableto land a successful television
contract, the ABA watched as two of its mostsuccessful teams, New
York and Denver, applied for membership in the NBA onSeptember 24,
1975.76The remaining teams in the league applied for member shipon
October 21st of that year.77
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56Bob Wussler, president of CBS, renegotiated a new television
contract withthe NBA that would give the league $21 million in the
first two years and $22million for the final two years.78The network
also offered the NBA an additional$5 million as an incentive if up to
four new franchises from the ABA were acceptedby the NBA.79Wussler
said that there were certain ABA teams that CBS wouldhave liked to
see in the NBA.80He cited in particular the Denver Nuggets withDavid
Thompson, and the New York Nets with Julius Erving.81Wussler also
saidthat he felt the problem with the NBA ratings was that
the "'superstars weren't superenough and the super teams did not play
up to expectations'".82Wussler added thathe did not feel that the ABA
was strong enough by itself to warrant a
televisioncontract.83Goldaper noted that regular-season ratings for
the NBA were down 28percent and between 10 and 15 percent for the
playoffs.84On June 18, 1976, NBA owners voted 17-1 to merge with the
ABA.85TheDenver Nuggets, Indiana Pacers, New York Nets and San
Antonio Spurs all joinedthe league.86The remaining teams were
disbanded, with all of their players enteringthe NBA's dispersal
draft.87Also, the incoming ABA teams were not allowed toshare in the
network television deal for the next four years.88However, when
CBSand the NBA renegotiated their contract for the 1978-79 season,
the ABA teamswere allowed to share in it, despite the fact they would
receive only $116,000 a yearfor the first two years of a four-year,
$74 million contract.89In the final two yearsof the contract, the
four teams would share equally with the rest of the
NBA.90Ascompensation for entering the same market as the Knicks, the
New York Nets wereforced to pay the Knicks an additional $4 million.91
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571. United Press International, "Cincinnati NBA Team Going to Kansas
City," The ChicagoTribune, 15 Mar. 1972, Sect. 3, p. 6.2. Bob
Logan, "New Orleans gets N.B.A. Franchise," The Chicago Tribune 8
Mar. 1974,Sect. 3, p. 1.3. Joseph Durso, "Overexpansion Continues to
Haunt N.B.A. and N.H.L.," The New YorkTimes 13 July 1977, p. A15.4.
ibid, p. A15.5. William Marsano, "Will It Be the Game of the 1970s?"
TV Guide 4 April 1970, p. 14.6. ibid, p. 15.7. ibid, p.
15.ConclusionThe 1970s was a decade of regression for the NBA's
television fortunes. The success of the Knicks pumped life into the
league, and great things wereexpected. But the battles with the ABA
and the retirement of NBA stars and therapid expansion diluted the
talent and the interest in the game. Then, when the twoleagues
finally did merge, the league was faced with more teams and
fewermatchups between historic rivals for the season. There was also
alienation oftelevision viewers due to the quality of play and the
fact that fans were unable toidentify with the players. Finally,
there was criticism of the way CBS handled NBAtelecasts, as well as
the charge that the league was "too black" for White America
toembrace it. It all added up to poor ratings, so poor that in 1977-
78 the decisivechampionship game of the NBA was rated 442nd, while
the World Series and theSuper Bowl took six of the top nine spots on
prime time television.92The NBAwould continue to flounder into the
early 1980s, until new stars, and two oldchampionship rivals, would
save the league again.Notes
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588. ibid, p. 15.9. Walter Kennedy, "They'll Move To Athens . . . If
They Ever Get Cleveland StraightenedOut," TV Guide 6 March 1971, p.
54.10. ibid, p. 55.11. John Carol, "TV Talk," Sports Illustrated 13
Mar. 1972, p. 9.12. ibid, p. 9.13. ibid, p. 9.14. Frank Deford, "TV
Talk," Sports Illustrated 24 May 1971, p. 16.15. ibid, p. 16.16.
ibid, p. 16.17. ibid, p. 16.18. Dave Kindred, "Tube Boob Can't Cope
With NBA; Subtleties Too Rich ForTV," The Washington Post 3 June
1979, p. G1.19. "C.B.S., N.B.A. Agree; A.B.C. Doesn't," The New York
Times, 9 Mar. 1973, p. 32.20. Bert Randolph Sugar, The Thrill of
Victory (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1978), 124.21. William
Leggett, "Slam Dunked By the Ratings," Sports Illustrated 16 Oct.
1978, p. 67.22. Sam Goldaper, "N.B.A. Players Are Requesting Sweeping
Changes," The New YorkTimes 8 Feb. 1979, p. D18, col. 3.23. John
Papanek, "There's An Ill Wind Blowing for the NBA," Sports
Illustrated 26 Feb.1979, p. 21.24. ibid, p. 27.25. ibid, p. 27.26.
ibid, p. 27.27. ibid, p. 27.28. William Leggett, "Basketfuls of
Information," Sports Illustrated 9 Feb, 1976, p. 48.29. ibid, p.
48.30. ibid, p. 48.
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5931. ibid, p. 48.32. ibid, p. 48.33. William Leggettt, "Bushels of
Baskets on Sunday," Sports Illustrated 31 Jan. 1977, p. 37.34. ibid,
p. 37.35. ibid, p. 37.36. ibid, p. 37.37. William Leggett, "Slam
Dunked By the Ratings," Sports Illustrated 16 Oct. 1978, p. 67.38.
ibid, p. 67.39. ibid, p. 67.40. ibid, p. 67.41. ibid, p. 67.42. ibid,
p. 67.43. John Papanek, "There's An Ill Wind Blowing for the NBA,"
Sports Illustrated26 Feb. 1979, p. 20.44. ibid, p. 20.45. William
Leggett, "Slam Dunked by the Ratings," Sports Illustrated 16 Oct.
1978, p. 67.46. ibid, p. 67.47. Benjamin G. Rader, In its Own Image:
How Television Has Transformed Sports (NewYork: The Free Press,
1984), 148.48. John Papanek, "There's An Ill Wind Blowing for the
NBA," Sports Illustrated 26 Feb.1979, p. 20.49. William
Leggett, "Slam Dunked By the Ratings," Sports Illustrated 16 Oct.
1978, 67.50. ibid, p. 67.51. ibid, p. 67.52. ibid, p. 67.53. Al
Stump, "Did You Ever See A Dream Walking?" TV Guide 21 April 1973, p.
25.
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6054. Sam Goldaper, "N.B.A. Players Are Requesting Sweeping Changes,"
The New YorkTimes 8 Feb. 1979, p. D18, col. 3.55. Dave Kindred, "Tube
Boob Can't Cope With NBA; Subtleties Too Rich for TV," TheWashington
Post 3 June 1979, p. G1.56. ibid, p. G1.57. John Papanek, "There's An
Ill Wind Blowing for the NBA," Sports Illustrated 26 Feb.1979, p.
21.58. Melvin Durslag, "Masters of the Fast Break," TV Guide 27 March
1976, p. 21.59. ibid, p. 21.60. ibid, p. 21.61. Pete Axthelm, "Why
Pro Basketball is Sick," Newsweek 22 Nov. 1976, p. 87.62. Benjamin G.
Rader, In its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports
(NewYork: The Free Press, 1984), 148.63. ibid, p. 148.64. John
Papanek, "There's An Ill Wind Blowing for the NBA," Sports
Illustrated 26 Feb.1979, p. 27.65. ibid, p. 22.66. Sam
Goldaper, "N.B.A. Players Are Requesting Sweeping Changes," The New
YorkTimes 8 Feb. 1979, p. D15.67. ibid, p. D18, column 3.68. "Dolph,
Head of A.B.A., To Step Down in Fall," The New York Times 3 June1972,
p. 25.69. ibid, p. 25.70. Leonard Koppett, "A.B.A. Flunks its
Demography Test," The New York Times 26 May1974, Section 5, p. 1.71.
ibid, p. 1.72. ibid, p. 3, column 1.73. ibid, p. 3, column 1.74.
Frank Deford, "One Last Hurrah in Hyannis," Sports Illustrated 28
June 1976, p. 64.
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6175. Sam Goldaper, "DeBusschere to Head A.B.A.," The New York Times
15 May 1975, p.S5. 76. The Associated Press, "ABA Teams Apply for NBA
Switch," The Washington Post 21Oct. 1975, p. B1.77. ibid, p. B1.78.
Sam Goldaper, "N.B.A. Gets Merger 'Spur'," The New York Times 25 May
1976, p. 30.79. ibid, p. 30.80. ibid, p. 30.81. ibid, p. 30.82. ibid,
p. 30.83. ibid, p. 30.84. ibid, p. 30.85. David DuPree, "NBA Owners
Vote 17-1 to Merge With ABA," The Washington Post 18June 1976, p.
D1.86. ibid, p. D1.87. ibid, p. D1.88. ibid, p. D1.89. Sam
Goldaper, "Boe Gets Windfall From TV," The New York Times 5 May 1978,
p. A19.90. ibid, p. A20.91. Frank Deford, "One Last Hurrah in
Hyannis," Sports Illustrated 28 June 1976, p. 64.92. Benjamin G.
Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports
(NewYork: Free Press, 1984), 147.
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62CHAPTER 5THE 1980s: A DECADE OF PROSPERITYThe 1970s were a
disappointing decade for the NBA on television. Insteadof advancing,
which the league felt it would after the Knicks championship in
1970,the NBA suffered a setback on television. Despite the fact CBS
had re-signed withthe NBA for the league's most lucrative television
contract to date in 1978, anddespite the fact the ABA and NBA had
finally merged, the league was stillstruggling with its image
problem. NBA regular season games were consistentlyavoided by
television viewers, and the playoffs, once the only games
viewerswatched, were ignored as well.1Even the NBA Finals felt the
chill; the decadeended with the Washington Bullets and Seattle
Supersonics battling for a title ontape-delay.2The NBA did not
reverse this trend until the mid-'80s, and it was dueto several
factors that the NBA was able to right itself on television. Bird and
MagicThe reversal in NBA fortunes did not come instantly though, it
was agradual process that started with the arrival of Larry Bird and
Magic Johnson in1979. Bird had been drafted in 1978 by the Celtics,
and when he left Indiana State ayear later he signed with the
legendary franchise that had recently fallen on hardtimes.3Johnson
had completed his sophomore season at Michigan State when hedeclared
his intentions to enter the NBA draft. He was drafted first by the
Lakers,and Boston and Los Angeles became league powers again.
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63Bird and Johnson had proven their television potential in the 1979
NCAAfinals, when the two faced off for the championship. The result
was the highestrated championship game ever, despite the increased
media hype in subsequentyears.4The pair proved their worth in the NBA
as well. Bird lifted the Celtics to a61-21 record in 1979, a 32-game
improvement over the previous season.5Hiscontributions earned him
Rookie-of-the Year honors for that season.6Johnson didnot hit his
stride until the playoffs, when, while subbing for an injured
KareemAbdul-Jabbar at center, he scored 42 points, had 15 rebounds,
and 7 assists as theLakers won the championship over
Philadelphia.7Johnson became the first rookieever to be named NBA
Finals MVP, and the Bird-Johnson era had begun.However, few noticed
Johnson's performance until the following day,because CBS had again
decided that the game would be aired on tape-delay outsideof
Philadelphia and Los Angeles. This caused much consternation for the
NBA. The league's regular-season ratings were not spectacular either.
The NBA had aregular-season rating of 6.4 during 1980, compared with
an 8.2 average for collegegames and 7.4 for The Superstars on
NBC.8The NBA Makes ChangesThe problem with the television schedule
was so great that the NBA andCBS compromised before the 1981-82
season. For that year, the NBA would startits season three weeks
later than usual and CBS would guarantee to televise all ofthe
championship games live.9The late season start meant the Finals would
notbegin until June, when the May sweeps were over.10Also, the NBA
would avoidcompeting head-to-head with the World Series by virtue of
its later start.
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64The league was also intent on changing its image, and this involved
changingsome of its more puzzling rules.11Thomas Rogers in "N.B.A.
Eliminates BonusFree Throws" in The New York Times, reported that the
rule changes were made "inan effort to speed up the game."12Before
the 81-82 season started, the NBA ruledthat a free-throw shooter
could no longer take three free throw to make two, or twoto make
one.13Fouling in the backcourt wouldbe treated as a common foul,
whichwould encourage the college strategy of the full-court
press.14Bruce Newmanwrote in "The NBA Goes Back to School" in Sports
Illustrated that this style ofbasketball was seen as more
enthusiastic and more fun to watch for the fans.15TheNBA also
instituted the "illegal defense" rule, which would prevent teams
fromdouble-teaming a player before he received the ball. This rule
change allowedathletes like Dr. J and David Thompson more room to
take their defender off thedribble and create more crowd-pleasing
moves.16However, the old criticisms of what was wrong with the NBA
were notentirely eliminated. There remained the speculation that the
season needed to beshortened to 60 games to allow NBA teams to
deliver the highest quality ofbasketball to the public.17In addition,
with the playoffs starting later than ever, theseason would become
interminable. As always in the NBA, new solutions did notalways
answer all of the league's critics.One way CBS sought to answer the
interminable season criticism was togreatly reduce the number of NBA
regular-season telecasts. In 1982-83, CBSreduced the number of
regular-season telecasts from 18 the previous year to 4.18CBS
officials' reason for limiting the telecasts was also practical.
Cable televisionwas carrying a large number of regular-season games,
and CBS executives felt the
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65public was being oversaturated with telecasts. The 1979-80 season
had seen theleague sign its first deal with a cable network, USA, for
3 years and $1.5 million(see Appendix B). In 1982-83, USA shared
those rights with ESPN for $11 millionover two years. The biggest
reason CBS had for limiting the number of telecasts was theratings.
In 1976, CBS regular-season ratings were an abysmal 26 percent share
onSunday afternoons, by 1980 that number had fallen to 18
percent.19Despite thepoor ratings, CBS again re-signed with the NBA
to a four-year, $88 millioncontract (see Appendix B). While the NBA
was still struggling with its ratings, there was talk amongstNBA
executives that the situation was improving. USA and ESPN televised
40games during the season, and the NBA also had its many connections
to local cablesystems.20Also, CBS would televise as many playoff
games as it had in years past,with a maximum of 23.21In addition, the
NHL had lost its network contract in1976, and by 1983 it still had
not landed a new one.22The NBA had at leastmaintained a relationship
with television.The Resurgence of the NBABy the time the 1983-84
season had arrived, the NBA was beginning to gainin popularity. The
NBA was the only major sports league, the NFL included, thathad
gained in its TV audience, up 12 percent for the 1981-83
period.23CBS'strategy of limiting the number of regular-season
telecasts had paid off. Only sevengames were telecast for the 1983-84
season, and there were 16 games telecast in theplayoffs.24In
addition, there were 10 playoff telecasts on USA and another 10
onESPN.25The NBA also benefitted from the labor strife that had
impacted the NFL
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66and baseball. In 1981 a baseball strike wiped out half of the
regular season, and in1982 a strike limited the NFL regular season to
just seven games.26TheNBA was filling the void, just as it had when
the point-shaving scandals in collegebasketball during the early
fifties had first launched the league into prominence.Another reason
for the NBA's resurgence was its superstars. By 1983,Julius Erving
and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar were joined by Larry Bird and MagicJohnson as
bona fide superstars. They were also different kinds of superstars
thatappealed to different viewers. Johnson personified a person
having fun with his joband Bird represented work ethic.27Dr. J was
the symbol of grace and dignity aswell as the ambassador of
basketball, and Abdul-Jabbar was quiet consistence
andexcellence.28This divergence of personalities brought the NBA into
a golden age ofprosperity, and the results were seen at the
conclusion of the 1983-84 season.Ever since Bird and Johnson's
arrival in 1979, the Celtics and Lakers hadbecome the two best teams
in basketball (with the exception of Dr. J and thePhiladelphia
76ers). Since that season, the Lakers and Celtics had won
everychampionship except one (again, the 76ers, in 1982-83). Yet the
two teams hadnever met in the Finals during that period. That would
change in 1984. That year,the Celtics and Lakers finally met for the
championship, and the result was one ofthe most dramatic Finals ever
played. The series went all seven games, and theseventh game
attracted the largest television audience ever for an NBA game.29This
series, and the two future meetings between the Celtics and the
Lakers in theFinals would be pivotal in stimulating the NBA's
popularity explosion. In 1987, theCeltics-Lakers NBA Finals would
produce the highest ratings in NBA history, notto be eclipsed until
the Jordan era in the 1990s.30
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67Beginning in the mid-1980s, the NBA became the fastest-growing and
mostfinancially successful league in team sports.31The league's
negative image wasforgotten, as the NBA produced more stars than the
NFL or baseball did. Johnsonand Bird emerged as the two best-known
athletes in the nation, and in the 1990sMichael Jordan would eclipse
them both and replace Muhammad Ali as the best-known athlete in the
world.32David SternNBA marketing was critical in forming the
foundation for the league'ssuccess, but the credit also largely went
to another man. That man was newCommissioner David Stern. David Stern
was a successful 41-year old attorney whohad been Commissioner Larry
O'Brien's second-in-command and had joinedthe NBA as league counsel
in 1978.33Stern's first order of business was to institutea salary
cap that would allowed players and owners to share in the
league'stelevision and attendance revenue.34This allowed the owners
and players to getricher, and it prevented the rich teams from
spending more for players than the poorones did.35The NBA also
confronted the allegations of league-wide drug abuse bydrafting one
of the most comprehensive drug policies in sports.36Stern alsooversaw
a tremendous expansion in the marketing of NBA players, a strategy
thatwould make the league's biggest stars the most popular athletes
by the end of thedecade.37Almost as importantly, Stern solved the
NBA's television dilemma ofmaximizing ratings by limiting the number
of broadcasts.With the proliferation of cable channels in the early
1980s and the presenceof satellite-fed "superstations" like WGN in
Chicago and WTBS in Atlanta, theNBA was faced with an oversaturation
of its product.38In 1983-84 alone, 170
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68games were broadcast nationally, including CBS' modest 10-game
regular-seasonschedule.39The result was that CBS' telecasts were
weakened by the fact that therewas a game on television almost every
night.40Stern knew that this impaired theleague's ability to sell the
right to broadcast the games nationally, so he reduced theleague
schedule on cable to only 55 games starting in the 1984-85
season.41The rights to telecast these games were sold to WTBS for $20
million overtwo years. In addition, the superstation would also be
allowed to televise 20 early-round games of the playoffs.42This
reduction, more than any other reason,explained why the NBA's network
ratings had improved over the five years previousto 1985-86.43This
was a claim that no other sports league--professional oramateur--
could make.CBS took note of the improved ratings, and before the 1986-
87 season thenetwork negotiated with the NBA to a 4-year, $173
million contract, the largest inleague history. CBS executive Ted
Shaker commented on how far the NBA hadcome on television, when he
was asked about whether the network wanted to resignwith the NBA for
the '86-'87 season: "'Are you kidding? Absolutely.'"44Thatcomment
showed how far the league had come since the early part of the
decade. In 1980, the league was floundering on television. The
regular-season games werebeing hammered in the ratings, and the
Finals were reduced to being shown on tape-delay. In 1985, the league
signed its most lucrative contract for television, and itsrevenues
had increased during that same span from $108 million to $192
million.45The SuperstarsAnother reason for the league's improved
standing on television was theinflux of a new generation of stars
that, when complemented with Bird, Johnson,
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69Dr. J, and Abdul-Jabbar, thrust the league into a golden age of
prosperity. Duringthe first few years of the 1980s, players like
Isiah Thomas, Dominique Wilkins, andClyde Drexler entered the NBA,
and they lifted formerly poor teams in Detroit,Atlanta, and Portland
to respectability. But the league's biggest star arrived in1984,
Michael Jordan.Jordan was an All-American 6-6 guard from North
Carolina. He had wonan NCAA Championship in college as well as the
Player of the Year award twice.46In 1984, he led the United States
Olympic team to the gold medal in Spain.47Thatsame year, he was part
of a draft class that included Hakeem Olajuwon and CharlesBarkley,
two other future NBA legends.Jordan was drafted in the first round by
the Chicago Bulls, another weakteam in a large media market. The
early reviews of Jordan were good. Jane Grosswrote that "Jordan's
high-wire act. . . drew howls at Madison Square Garden andhas drawn
crowds at practice sessions."48Bob Sakamoto of the Chicago
Tribuneadded, "His (Jordan's) presence accounted for the Bulls nearly
doubling theirattendance from the previous year."49Jordan drew
comparisons to Julius Ervingand Magic Johnson during his first
season, which proved that writers were aware ofhis talent from the
beginning. He won Rookie of the Year honors in his first seasonand
created a sensation with his athletic feats.50In his second season he
dazzledBoston Garden with a playoff-record 63 points in a playoff
game against theCeltics.51Jordan led the league in scoring during
every season in the 1980s exceptone, the 1985-86 season when he was
injured.52He won the league's MVP awardand Defensive Player of the
Year award in 1987-88.53He became the league's most
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70dominant player by the end of the decade, but in the 1990s Jordan
would literallycome to personify the NBA. In the 1980s, he was just
another of the superstars that the NBA had beenvery successful in
marketing to the public. The following year, the league receivedan
added boost when a new superstar was drafted by the Knicks. The New
YorkKnicks won the right to draft Georgetown center Patrick Ewing in
the 1985 NBAlottery. Ewing, a 7-0 center who had received more hype
than any center sinceKareem Abdul-Jabbar entered the league, had an
immediate impact on revivingbasketball in New York.54According to Sam
Goldaper, Ewing was expected togenerate millions of dollars in
additional box office, television, and radio revenuesfor the Knicks
and the NBA.55The Knicks experienced a 66 percent ticket increasefrom
the previous year after news came that Ewing had been drafted.56Like
theKnicks' championship team 15 years earlier, Ewing brought instant
attention tobasketball in New York and the Knicks franchise.57His
arrival, coupled withJordan's and Johnson's presence in the NBA, gave
the league three star players inthree of the largest media
markets.The addition of star talent and star personalities made the
NBA veryprofitable, and as a result the league expanded three times
during the decade. TheDallas Mavericks entered the league in 1980-
81,58followed by the Miami Heat andthe Charlotte Hornets in 1988-
89.59The Minnesota Timberwolves and OrlandoMagic would enter the
league just one year later, bringing the total number of teamsto
27.60The league was prospering, and that was reflected in the status
of theNBA's network contract.
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71In 1986-87, the NBA and TBS agreed to a 2-year, $25 million
contract. When that contract expired, the NBA agreed with TBS and TNT
to another 2-yeardeal, this time worth $50 million. By the late
1980s, CBS was telecasting 15-16regular season games each year. The
ratings were holding steady, while the ratingsfor TBS and TNT rose
from 6.6 percent in 1985-86 to 7.3 percent in 1989-90 (seeAppendix
B). By the end of the decade, there were more than 700 regular
seasongames broadcast by local stations--an increase of nearly 35
percent from 1985-86,reflected partly through the league's
expansions.61Cable telecasts also rose 39percent during that same
period, thanks to the launch of new regional and cablesports
networks.62The decade closed with the NBA signing with NBC for
$600million over four years, the most lucrative contract in NBA
history.63In just onedecade, the league's television fortunes had
come full-circle.ConclusionThe 1980s was a decade of tremendous
change for the NBA on television. The influx of new stars such as
Larry Bird, Michael Jordan, and Magic Johnsongave the league a new
image and new players to market. The arrival of David Sternas
commissioner in 1983 saw changes in the way the league dealt
withtelevision. The number of national telecasts was limited to give
the NBA good standing withthe networks. Television contracts exploded
from roughly $18.5 million a year to$150 million a year by the end of
the decade. Stern's marketing strategies increasedthe league's
revenue and created superstars out of Bird, Jordan, Johnson,
andothers. The league had reached new heights in popularity, the only
question waswhether those heights could be sustained as the 1990s
began.
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721. "Basketball Comeback," The New York Times 28 Dec. 1981, p. C2.2.
Dave Kindred, "Tube Boob Can't Cope With NBA; Subtleties Too Rich for
TV," TheWashington Post 3 June 1979, p. G1.3. The Associated
Press, "'Hick' Bird A Rich Celt," The Washington Post 9 June 1979, p.
D1.4. Bob Ryan, "The Two and Only," Sports Illustrated 14 Dec. 1992,
p. 49.5. Zander Hollander (ed.) & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official
NBA Encyclopedia (New York:Villard Books, 1989), 163.6. Jack
McCallum, "Larry Bird and Magic Johnson," Sports Illustrated 19 Sept.
1994, p. 67.7. Ken Denlinger, "Johnson's 42 Gives Lakers NBA Title,"
The Washington Post 17 May1980, p. D1.8. Bruce Newman, "The NBA Goes
Back To School," Sports Illustrated 9 Nov. 1981, p. 41.9. ibid, p.
41. 10. ibid, p. 41.11. ibid, p. 42.12. Thomas Rogers, "N.B.A.
Eliminates Bonus Free Throws," The New York Times 31 July1981, p.
A14.13. Bruce Newman, "The NBA Goes Back to School," Sports
Illustrated 9 Nov. 1981, p. 42.14. ibid, p. 42.15. ibid, p. 47.16.
ibid, p. 47.17. ibid, p. 47.18. Jack Craig, "A TV Bone in the NBA's
Throat," The Sporting News 24 Jan. 1983, p. 17.19. Benjamin G. Rader,
In Its Own Image: How Television Has Transformed Sports (NewYork:
Free Press, 1984), 147.20. Jack Craig, "A TV Bone in the NBA's
Throat," The Sporting News 24 Jan. 1983, p. 17.21. ibid, p. 17.22.
ibid, p. 17.Notes
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7323. Jack Craig, "Look Who's Gaining on TV--the NBA" The Sporting
News, 23April 1984, p. 9. 24. ibid, p. 9.25. ibid, p. 9.26. ibid, p.
9.27. ibid, p. 9.28. ibid, p. 9. 29. ibid, p. 9.30. "Top Rate," The
New York Times 19 June 1987, p. D23. 31. Benjamin G. Rader, American
Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age ofTelevised Sports
(Upper Saddle Bridge, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996), 258.32. ibid, p.
258.33. "NBA Moving Ahead," The Sporting News 19 Dec. 1983, p. 6.34.
Scott Howard-Cooper, "A 10-Year-Old System That Revolutionized
Sports," LosAngeles Times 21 Aug. 1994, Part C, p. 9.35. Brenton
Welling, Jonathan Tasini, & Dan Cook, "Basketball: Business Is
Booming,"Business Week 28 Oct. 1985, p. 78.36. Jeffrey
Meitrodt, "NBA's Popularity Concerns Owners," The Times-Picayune 24
Jan.1997, p. S58.37. ibid, p. S58.38. Brenton Welling, Jonathan
Tasini, & Dan Cook, "Basketball: Business Is Booming,"Business Week
28 Oct. 1985, p. 74. 39. ibid, p. 82.40. ibid, p. 82.41. ibid, p.
82.42. ibid, p. 82.43. ibid, p. 82.44. ibid, p. 82.
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7445. ibid, p. 74.46. Bob Sakamoto, "In the End, Jordan's No. 1," The
Chicago Tribune 17 May 1985, Section4, p. 1.47. ibid, p. 1.48. Jane
Gross, "Jordan Makes People Wonder: Is He the New Dr. J?" The New
York Times21 Oct. 1984, Section 5, p. 9.49. Bob Sakamoto, "In the
End, Jordan's No. 1," The Chicago Tribune 17 May 1985, Section4, p.
1. 50. ibid, p. 1. 51. Sam Goldaper, "Jordan Scores 63 in Loss," The
New York Times 21 April 1986, p. C1.52. Roland Lazenby, The NBA
Finals: A Fifty-Year Celebration (Indianapolis: Masters Press,1996),
283.53. Zander Hollander (ed.) & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA
Encyclopedia (NewYork: Villard Books, 1989), 195.54. Brenton Welling,
Jonathan Tasini, & Dan Cook, "Basketball: Business is
Booming,"Business Week 28 Oct. 1985, p. 73.55. Sam Goldaper, "All
Eyes on Lottery For Ewing," The New York Times 6 May 1985, p.C1.56.
Brenton Welling, Jonathan Tasinin, & Dan Cook, "Basketball: Business
Is Booming,"Business Week 28 Oct. 1985, p. 73.57. ibid, p. 73.58.
David DuPree, "League Approves Dallas Entry," The Washington Post 3
Feb. 1980, p.D1.59. Anthony Cotton, "NBA Accepts Miami, Charlotte,
Orlando, Twin Cities," TheWashington Post 23 April 1987, p. B1.60.
ibid, p. B1.61. Bortz & Company, Inc., Sports on Television: A New
Game For Broadcasters (Denver:National Association of Broadcasters,
1990), 6.62. ibid, p. 6. 63. John Steinbreder, "The Ball's in a New
Court," Sports Illustrated 20 Nov. 1989, p. 175.
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75CHAPTER 6ON THE COATTAILS OF MICHAEL JORDANThe 1980s saw an
unprecedented popularity explosion for the NBA. Theheights NBA
founders had hoped to reach when the league was born in 1946
hadfinally been attained in the 1980s. Now, the only question was how
to sustain thatpopularity. As the decade began, NBC had signed the
NBA away from CBS for$750 million over four years. The NBA lost
Erving and Abdul-Jabbar when the '80s ended, and MagicJohnson and
Larry Bird, the two most credited with bringing the NBA its
success,were nearing the ends of their historic careers. The Lakers
were no longer worldchampions, having been dethroned by the Pistons
in 1989. The Celtics had not beento the Finals since 1987, and they
would not return during Bird's final years. Butthe league still had
Michael Jordan, who was entering his decade of dominance. Hewould
lift the league to even greater heights in both popularity and on
television. The 1990s would become Jordan's decade.Jordan Reaches the
PinnacleEach year since Michael Jordan's arrival in the NBA in 1984,
the ChicagoBulls had been building steadily for a championship. Each
season the team went deeper into the playoffs, and by the time the
1980s ended, Chicago was left withonly one opponent between them and
the Finals--the Detroit Pistons, the two-timeworld champions in 1988-
89 and 1989-90. The Pistons were known as "The BadBoys," and they
eliminated Jordan's Bulls from the playoffs for three straight years.1
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76But in 1990-91, Chicago finally defeated them to enter the NBA
Finals for the firsttime.2And now, the NBA's biggest star had the
league's biggest stage tomake his impact on television. Nearly a
decade later, Jordan would leave his markon NBA--and television--
history.Ironically enough, Jordan would have to win his championship
against the"Team of the 80s," and the "Player of the 80s" as well,
the Lakers and MagicJohnson. NBC could not have asked for a better
championship series to televise inits first season, and the 1991 NBA
Finals became a media circus as nationalattention was showered on the
two marquee players. Jack McCallum noted this in"Show of Shows: For
Star Quality, the Magic and Michael Made-For-TV miniseriestops all
NBA Finals" when he wrote, "the NBA has never seen anything like
this."3Michael Wilbon added in "It Doesn't Get Any Better,"
that, "these NBA Finals willbe the most widely and most passionately
watched basketball championship seriesever."4The series proved to be
a changing of the guard in two respects. First,Jordan won his first-
ever championship after Magic had won five during the '80s. Secondly,
Jordan assumed the position of leading the NBA in the ratings wars.
Johnson and Bird had battled in three NBA Finals that had garnered
the highestratings ever the previous decade, and in the '90s it was
Jordan's turn.Jordan RetiresJordan led the Bulls to three straight
championships in the 1990s, and the1993 NBA Finals surpassed the 1987
Lakers-Celtics matchup as the highest-ratedNBA Finals ever.5Then,
seemingly without warning, Jordan retired following theBulls' third-
straight championship, leaving the NBA--and television--with a huge
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77void. Jordan had led the Bulls in NBC's top four-rated games of the
1992-93season, and his loss left many to ponder who would take his
place.6With Birdhaving retired at the end of 1992, and Magic's
unexpected retirement due to AIDSin 1991, in just three seasons the
league had lost its three most popular stars. In a New York Times
article, "Television Loses Star of the Ratings Game,"Richard Sandomir
commented on NBC and TNT's position. Sandomir wrote,"NBC and TNT
relied on Jordan and the Chicago Bulls to swell their
ratings,scheduling as many Bulls games as their NBA contracts would
allow."7Sandomircited that it was partly due to Jordan's presence
that the networks signed new four-year deals that required them to
pay 25 percent more than previously. Sandomiralso remarked that not
only was Jordan a great player, but he played in the nation'sthird-
largest market. During his career, Jordan provided TNT and with
ratings 17percent higher than the season average for
telecasts.8According to Sandomir, NBC overreacted to the loss of its
NBA star byfirst televising 30 minutes of Jordan's press conference
and then by dispatching TomBrokaw of "NBC Nightly News" to interview
Jordan that same night.9LeonardShapiro also noted NBC's coverage of
Jordan's retirement in "Wave Bye to CBS;Hold Off on Jordan" in The
Washington Post.10Coverage of Jordan led off thetelecast, followed by
a few minutes for a report on the situation in Somalia.11Sandomir
thought NBC's reaction was a bit extreme, perhaps because the
networkknew what a product it was losing in Jordan. New Stars Fill
the VoidJordan might have been gone, but the NBA had already been
grooming newplayers to fill the void. The player most felt would take
Jordan's place as the
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78league's new ratings star was Shaquille O'Neal, the 7-2 center from
the OrlandoMagic.12However, there were still stars from the 1980s
that could help attractattention. Karl Malone and John Stockton of
the Utah Jazz, Jordan's fellow class of'84 alumnus Charles Barkley,
and Knick center Patrick Ewing were some of thestars who were still
playing from the 1980s.13With Jordan gone, one of theseplayers would
have a chance at the title that the Bulls had owned in the '90s.14And
with a championship would come the recognition that Jordan and the
Bulls hadreceived for so many years. However, it would not be one of
these playersthat would win the title. Instead, it would be another
of Jordan's class of '84 alumni,Hakeem Olajuwon.Olajuwon was a 6-10
center from the University of Houston. Drafted firstoverall in 1984
(ahead of Jordan), Olajuwon had already led his Houston Rockets tothe
NBA Finals in 1986, where they lost to Boston.15In 1994, he led the
Rocketsto a championship series matchup with his old rival, Patrick
Ewing and the NewYork Knicks.16However, a series that was supposed to
be a coronation for one of theleague's best players and a showcase
for two of the nation's two biggest marketscame off poorly. John
Dempsey wrote in "The NBA's Image Dribbles Away" inVariety that part
of the reason for the low ratings was the "series'
grindinglyunattractive defensive basketball, which turns off the
casual viewer."17MichaelWilbon of The Washington Post noted
that, "There is no more brilliance in theNBA, not based on what we've
seen in these Finals."18The result was that theKnicks-Rockets Finals
series garnered only a 12.3 rating, down 30 percent from theBulls-
Suns series of the previous year.19Part of the reason was the style
of play,
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79another reason, in Game 5 anyway, was the famous chase of O.J.
Simpson, whichNBC cut away from the game to follow. The result was a
7.8 rating, the mostabysmal rating for an Game Five since the 1981
Finals, which were shown on tape-delay.20The disappointing ratings
for the 1994 NBA Finals lent credence to thebelief that the league
would suffer without Jordan. There were other problems theleague was
facing, including the prospect of a player's strike in 1995, and the
recentretirements of Bird, Johnson, and Jordan.21All of this amounted
todiminished ratings for the NBA. There was still optimism because
David Stern,who had organized the league during its most prosperous
era, was still thecommissioner.22Also, there was the possibility that
the NBA's young stars woulddevelop into media personalities the
equivalent of Bird, Johnson, and Jordan.23Butthe NBA would not have
to wait, because Jordan would return from his baseballsabbatical in
the latter stages of the 1994-95 season.Jordan ReturnsOn March 19,
1995, Jordan made his return for an NBC game against theIndiana
Pacers, ending his 21-month "retirement." As expected, NBC
neatlyaccommodated Jordan's return. The network enlarged the scope of
the telecastfrom the original 53 percent to 98 percent of the
country, sending the Utah-Charlotte game only to the team's home
markets.24Ahmad Rashad, Jordan's friend,was sent to follow his every
move on the sidelines. Bob Costas was sent toIndianapolis to host the
nearly 25-minute pregame show which featured replays ofsome of
Jordan's greatest moments.25
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80Jordan's impact was immediate. Both NBC and CBS announced
Jordan'sreturn in news bulletins and "special reports."26NBC
promotions people alsodeveloped a 10-second spot that aired during
all of the network's entertainmentshows on Saturday night and on
Sunday morning's "today" and "Meet the Press."27His return game
against the Pacers, televised at noon on Saturday (the worst timeslot
for an NBA game ratings-wise), pulled in a rating of 13.4, the
highest rating ofthe 94-95 season.28This was in comparison to the
average rating of 2.2 NBC had achieved inthat spot due to competition
with college basketball on CBS.29NBC and TNTimmediately engaged in a
bidding war to televise a Friday-night game later thatweek between
the Bulls and the Magic, with TNT winning out and sharing
thebroadcast with WGN-TV, the Bulls local station in
Chicago.30However, theleague's excitement over Jordan's return was
dissipated when the Bulls wereeliminated early in the playoffs by the
Orlando Magic.Despite the fact the Bulls did not win a championship,
Jordan's return had ahuge impact on the ratings over the short period
he had played. The playoffs onNBC were up 13 percent to a 7.0 rating
from 1994's 6.2.31This marked thehighest cumulative playoff average
for the NBA in 18 years.32TNT's ratingsskyrocketed 30 percent upward
from 1994, and games on TNT from May 8-14pulled in the highest seven
ratings for cable, including an NBA-record 7.9 for aBulls-Magic game
on May 10.33According to Thomas Walsh in "Can PlayoffHoops Fly
Without Air" in Variety, NBC tried to explain away the meteoric
risesince Jordan's return, but it was clear that his presence had a
tremendous effect onthe league's television ratings.34
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81The next season, Jordan cemented his television supremacy, as the
Bullsromped through a record-setting 72-win season and won their
fourth championshipof the '90s.35Sandomir examined Jordan's ratings
impact on the 1995-96 season. Five NBC Bulls games averaged a 6.6
rating, while the 11 non-Bulls gamesaveraged a 4.6 rating.36This
marked a 43.6-percent increase from non-Bulls gamesto Bulls
games.37Cable also experienced the windfall from Jordan's television
appearances. In1995, nine Bulls telecasts on TNT pulled in a 3.7
rating; the remaining 30 gamesaveraged only a 1.7 rating.38Thus, TNT
games featuring Jordan generated a 117percent increase in ratings
over non-Bulls games.39TBS's five Bulls games netted a2.9 rating; the
15 non-Bulls games pulled in only a 1.7 rating.40This indicated a70.5
percent increase in ratings for Bulls games.41But these were not the
onlystatistics Sandomir used to measure Jordan's impact on the
NBA.Sandomir noted that even though TNT and TBS were obliged to show
allteams, which would lead to some unattractive matchups and
consequently poorratings, Jordan's impact was still great.42Before
Jordan's retirement, Bulls games inTNT-TBS rated about 10 percent
higher than the next-highest team.43In 1995-96,ratings for Bulls
games were 41 percent higher than those of the next highest team,the
Orlando Magic.44Five of the seven highest-rated games in 1995-96
starred the Bulls, and thehighest-rated non-Bulls matchup, San
Antonio against Orlando, rated 21 percentlower than a Bulls-Suns game
on Super Sunday that was the highest-rated game ofthe season.45The
result was that the networks sought to televise as many Bullsgames as
possible under the NBA contract. The potential problem was that the
rest
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82of the league would be neglected and would not be promoted enough
to help theNBA maintain its popularity after Jordan's retirement.46As
the 1997-98 seasonapproached, the networks and NBC in particular
would play up the angle ofJordan's retirement and in return would get
great ratings again.The NBA Again Faces Life After JordanBefore the
1997-98 season started, there was speculation it would beJordan's
last.47The Bulls had re-signed head coach Phil Jackson for only one
moreseason, and they made it clear that he would not return for
another one.48Jordanannounced that he would not play for another
coach, which made most observersbelieve it would be his last year in
the NBA.49With Jordan's retirement imminent,NBC sought to exploit the
angle that every playoff series could be Jordan's last.50This was the
theme throughout the final two playoff series for the Bulls in 1997-
98,against Indiana and Utah. NBC experienced the power of public
interest in Jordan'slast game when the Bulls were unexpectedly pushed
to a seventh game in theEastern Conference Finals by the Indiana
Pacers. With the Bulls' season and Jordan's career hinging on one
game, NBC wentall out in its efforts to deliver the product. There
was a half-hour pregame showthat documented the drama of the series,
and after the Bulls won 88-83, the impactof the public's interest in
Jordan came through in the ratings.51The game resulted ina 19.1
rating, the seventh-highest NBA game of all-time and nearly 3 points
higherthan any non-Finals telecast in history.52In the NBA Finals
against Utah, the Bulls continued to snare record-ratings. If not for
the fact that the series lacked drama after the second game, it was
believedthat the Finals would have shattered all of the
records.53Still, each game of the
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831. Jack McCallum, "Watch out World," Sports Illustrated 3 June
1991, p. 26.2. ibid, p. 26.3. Jack McCallum, "Show of Shows: For Star
Quality, the Magic and Michael Made-For-TVMiniseries tops all NBA
Finals," Sports Illustrated 10 June 1991, p. 20.4. Michael
Wilbon, "It Doesn't Get Any Better," The Washington Post 1 June 1991,
p. G1.5. Richard Sandomir, "Television Loses Star of the Ratings
Game," The New York Times 7Oct. 1993, p. B20. Chicago-Utah series
rated first or second all-time in Finals history in ratings. Jordan's
impact on the NBA Finals during the 1990s was also evident. The first
fiveNBA Finals that included the Bulls averaged a primetime rating of
16.3, 31 percentbetter than the three Finals without Chicago.54Also,
of the 15 highest-rated NBAtelecasts ever, Chicago was featured in
11.55Jordan's decade of dominance wassecure.ConclusionAs the 1990s
come to a close, there again is speculation on whether theleague can
survive on television without Jordan. The two years in which his
Bullsdid not appear in the Finals in the mid-90s experienced a severe
ratings drop fromthe Finals the Bulls participated in.56Jordan's
impact was felt in delivering the twohighest-rated Finals in NBA
history, as well as the highest-ever non-Finals game inhistory.57His
Bulls have been part of 11 of the top 15 most-watched games in
NBAhistory, and Jordan's return from retirement generated the highest
regular-seasonratings for the NBA in years. However, the question
remains ofhow to replace aplayer with Jordan's mass appeal. NBA
officials hope the new wave of superstarscan appeal to fans the same
way Jordan did.58Notes
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846. ibid, p. B20.7. ibid, p. B20. 8. Steve Nidetz, "TV Digs in for
life after Jordan," The Chicago Tribune 7 Oct. 1993,Section 4, p. 11.
9. Richard Sandomir, "NBC Goes Bonkers Over Jordan," The New York
Times 8 Oct. 1993,p. B14.10. Leonard Shapiro, "Wave Bye to CBS; Hold
Off on Jordan," The Washington Post 8 Oct.1993, p. C2.11. Richard
Sandomir, "NBC Goes Bonkers Over Jordan," The New York Times 8 Oct.
1993,p. B14.12. John Ed Bradley, "Sugar Shaq," Sports Illustrated 25
April 1994, p. 55.13. Phil Taylor, "Together Again," Sports
Illustrated 13 June 1994, p. 27.14. Roland Lazenby, The NBA Finals: A
Fifty-Year Celebration (Indianapolis: Masters Press,1996), 304.15.
Phil Taylor, "Together Again," Sports Illustrated 13 June 1994, p.
27.16. ibid, p. 27.17. John Dempsey, "NBA's Image Dribbles Away,"
Variety 27 June 1994, p. 27.18. Michael Wilbon, "Finals a Little
Light on Brilliance," The Washington Post 16 June 1994,p. B1.19. John
Dempsey, "NBA's Image Dribbles Away," Variety 27 June 1994, p. 28.20.
ibid, p. 28.21. ibid, p. 27.22. ibid, p. 27.23. ibid, p. 28.24.
Richard Sandomir, "NBC Hopes Comeback Pumps Air into Ratings," The
New YorkTimes 20 March 1995, p. C4.25. ibid, p. C4.26. Steve
Nidetz, "NBC Glad to Accept Jordan Ratings Windfall," The Chicago
Tribune 19March 1995, Section 3, p. 12.
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8527. ibid, p. 12.28. Richard Sandomir, "NBC's Ratings Soar Higher
than Jordan," The New York Times 21March 1995, p. B13.29. ibid, p.
B13.30. ibid, p. B13.31. Thomas Walsh, "Can Hoop Playoffs Fly Without
Air," Variety 22 May 1995, p. 37. 32. Steve Nidetz, "ESPN Show Mixes
Sports, Religion," The Chicago Tribune 19 May 1995,Section 4, p.
5.33. Thomas Walsh, "Can Hoop Playoffs Fly Without Air," Variety 22
May 1995, p. 39. 34. ibid, p. 39.35. Roland Lazenby, The NBA Finals:
A Fifty-Year Celebration (Indianapolis: Masters Press,1996), 335.36.
Richard Sandomir, "Ratings Dunk: Jordan Plays and People Watch," The
New York Times22 March 1996, p. B15.37. ibid, p. B15.38. ibid, p.
B15.39. ibid, p. B15.40. ibid, p. B15.41. ibid, p. B15.42. ibid, p.
B15.43. ibid, p. B15.44. ibid, p. B15.45. ibid, p. B15.46. ibid, p.
B15.47. Phil Taylor, "Hang in There," Sports Illustrated 16 Feb.
1998, p. 36. 48. ibid, p. 37.49. ibid, p. 37.
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8650. Tom Bierbaum, "Peacock Sells Jordan Farewell" Variety 15 June
1998: p. 26. 51. Rob Longley, "NBC Excels in Airing Jordan," The
Toronto Sun 1 June 1998, p. 9.52. Tom Bierbaum, "Peacock Sells Jordan
Farewell," Variety 15 June 1998, p. 26. 53. ibid, p. 26.54. ibid, p.
26.55. ibid, p. 26.56. ibid, p. 26. 57. ibid, p. 26.58. John
Dempsey, "The NBA's Image Dribbles Away," Variety 27 June 1994, p. 28.
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87CHAPTER 7KEY GAMES IN TELEVISION HISTORYThroughout the NBA's
checkered history on television, there have beenseveral games that
marked significant moments in the league's television history. Five
of the most important games in television history have been
highlighted fortheir contributions to or detractions from the NBA's
image. The criteria used forselecting these games were as follows:
They had to be landmark games, or firsts intelevision history, they
had to make an impact on the NBA's television fortunes,whether
positively or negatively. There were some significant games that
wereeliminated using these criteria, and some games that were
important were lost withthe passage of time. For instance, the first
televised game in league history and the first playoffgame in
television history were never found, so they were eliminated
fromcontention. The Russell-Chamberlain confrontations of the early
1960s and theCeltics-Lakers Finals from the '60s were eliminated
because they did notsignificantly impact the NBA's television
history. Despite the Russell-Chamberlainmatchups in the early '60s,
NBC dropped the NBA from its television lineup in1962. The Celtics-
Lakers Finals in the '60s were great in a historical context, butthey
did little to broaden basketball's appeal to television audiences. It
was notuntil the Knicks won the championship in 1970 that the NBA
finally had "arrived." That said, the key games that were selected
according to the criteria listed are asfollows: the 1954 Knicks-
Celtics game that NBC was forced to cut away from,
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88Game One of the 1956 NBA Finals between the Philadelphia Warriors
and the FortWayne Pistons, Game Seven of the 1970 NBA Finals between
the Knicks and theLakers, Game Seven of the 1984 NBA Finals between
the Celtics and the Lakers,and Game One of the 1991 NBA Finals
between the Bulls and the Lakers. Whatfollows is a description of
each of the games and their significance in the NBA'stelevision
history.Game One: Eastern Division Playoffs: March 16, 1954Boston
Celtics 93New York Knicks 71In the last year before the NBA 24-second
shot clock was implemented, thisgame stands out because of its effect
on NBC. The Celtics and Knicks met in GameOne of the Eastern Division
Playoffs in Madison Square Garden. NBC executiveshad decided to give
the NBA a national showcase for the game. But a greatopportunity for
the league was squandered when both teams committed 95 fouls inwhat
was called "one of the worst basketball games ever played".1The
Celtics won,but not many people knew the outcome because the network
cut away from thegame in disgust.2The New York Times made no mention
of the impact the gamehad on television, but but the game did
highlight the NBA's problems with theexcessive fouling and stalling
game that personified the league in the early 1950s.3These problems
necessitated the adoption of the 24-second clock, and the oldproblems
were soon eliminated.4This game may have been a setback in the
NBA'stelevision history, but it helped to force the league to make
drastic changes to adaptto the new medium.
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89Game One: NBA Finals: March 31, 1956Philadelphia Warriors 98Fort
Wayne Pistons 94This game has been long forgotten, but it was the
first nationally televisedNBA Finals game. Philadelphia had the
league's best record at 45-27 entering theFinals, but the Pistons had
the league's best defense and had lost to Syracuse theprevious year
in the Finals.5Paul Arizin and Neil Johnston had finished second
andthird in the league in scoring for Philadelphia, and Arizin would
score a game-high28 points as the Warriors triumphed in Philadelphia
before a crowd of 4,100 and anational television audience.6Game
Seven: 1970 NBA Finals: May 8, 1970New York Knicks 113Los Angeles
Lakers 99The 1960s had been a turbulent decade for the NBA on
television. Theleague had endured being dropped from network
television by NBC in the middle ofthe decade, and two upstart leagues
had sprouted to compete with the NBA for anaudience. In 1969-70, the
ABA played its second season, but the NBA's problemswere overshadowed
by what happened in New York. The Knicks, after strugglingfor years,
became a championship team in 1969. They entered the Finals against
theLakers with the league's best record (60-22), and they brought
national attention tothe NBA. This was reflected when Leonard Koppett
of The New York Times wrote,"darlings of the basketball world and a
subject of national sports interest sinceNovember . . . the Knicks
finally achieved the first title in their 24-year history."7
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90For years the league had suffered from the lack of success in its
biggest mediamarket, but all that changed in 1969. The culmination
came in the seventh game ofthe NBA Finals.The most lasting television
image from that game and one of the mostenduring television images in
sports history came when an injured Willis Reedlimped onto the court
just before the opening tip.8The sight of Reed ignited theKnicks'
already boisterous crowd, and it fired up his Knick teammates as
well.9Reed scored only four points in the game and played only
sparingly in the first half,but the Knicks, led by guard Walt
Frazier's 36-point, 19-assist effort, cruised to a113-99 victory over
the Lakers.10An article in Newsweek noted that the Knicks'season had
brought unprecedented national exposure to the NBA,11and expertsbegan
to predict that professional basketball would become the "Sport of
the'70s."12Game Seven: 1984 NBA Finals: June 12, 1984Boston Celtics
111Los Angeles Lakers 102This game became the highest-rated NBA
telecast of all time, and it markedthe beginning of the NBA's
television resurgence in the 1980s. At the start of thedecade, the
NBA Finals had been shown on tape-delay because CBS had no faith
incapturing a large audience.13Then, Magic Johnson and Larry Bird
arrived in theNBA, and their commitment to the concept of team play
changed the image of theNBA players as being selfish
individuals.14Their rivalry had already capturednational attention
when their teams met for the 1979 NCAA Final, and in their firstfour
years in the NBA the Lakers and Celtics combined for three of the four
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Page 98
91championships in the '80s.15But in 1984, the Celtics and Lakers
finally met for thechampionship, in a seven-game struggle that marked
the turning point in the NBA'simage on television.Game Seven
attracted the largest television audience in NBA history up tothat
point.16Behind Series MVP Larry Bird's 20 points and 12 rebounds,
Bostondefeated Los Angeles and Magic Johnson 111-102 in Boston
Garden.17It was achampionship setting for the NBA's resurgence. Two
of the league's most storiedfranchises and the league's two best
players had made the Finals series a success ontelevision, and new
Commissioner David Stern used this stroke of luck to give theNBA
image the jumpstart it needed.18Over the next three years Johnson and
Birdwould meet twice in the Finals, and their 1987 encounter would be
the highest-ratedNBA Finals of all-time until 1993.19Their rivalry
saved the league.20Game One: 1991 NBA Finals: June 2, 1991Los Angeles
Lakers 93Chicago Bulls 91The 1991 NBA Finals were symbolic, as the
torch of television supremacywas passed from Magic Johnson, who
represented the 1980s old guard, to MichaelJordan, who would lead the
league in the 1990s. Not since Johnson and Bird hadsquared off for
the third and final time in the NBA Finals in 1987 had there been
asmuch media attention centered on an NBA Finals series. The only
problem forNBC, which was televising NBA games for the first time
that season, was whetherthe Finals would last long enough to make a
profit. The hope was that with all ofthe hype surrounding the Magic-
Michael rivalry, the series would go to six or sevengames in order
for the network to make a profit (it went five).21NBC executives
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Page 99
92clearly received the matchup they had hoped for, with the Bulls and
Lakers alsobeing in two of the top three television markets in the
nation.The Bulls lost the opening game of the series 93-91 in Chicago
Stadium, asa Jordan jump shot that would have tied the game rolled
off of the rim at thebuzzer.22Still, Jordan finished with a game-high
36 points, 12 assists, and eightrebounds.23Unfortunately for NBC, the
series would last only five games, withChicago winning the last four
in succession and Jordan winning his long sought-after championship.
This series would serve as the springboard to Chicago'sdominance
during the 1990s, and the Bulls annually would become the
league'smost-watched team.24By 1998, they would win their sixth
championship and holdNBA records for the highest-rated regular-season
game and NBA Finals series ever. In fact, Jordan and the Bulls have
appeared in 11 of the 15 highest-rated NBAtelecasts ever.25Each of
these games had an impact on the NBA's television history. The1954
Knicks-Celtics game was significant not only because it was an early
setbackfor the league on television, but because it established the
need for a rule changethat would make the game more attractive to the
television audience. The 1956NBA Finals were significant because they
were the first to be televised nationally. The 1970 NBA Finals
brought the league unprecedented attention because of theKnicks'
championship victory. The 1984 NBA Finals was memorable because itwas
the first "Magic vs. Bird" championship series, and it marked the
beginning ofthe league's era of prosperity in the 1980s. Finally, the
1991 NBA Finals weresignificant because Michael Jordan had finally
reached the Finals, and he opposedJohnson in another series that
became a media spectacle. The series also was the
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931. Michael L. LaBlanc, Professional Team Histories: Basketball
(Detroit: Gale Research,1994), 78.2. ibid, p. 78.3. Charles
Paikert, "When Biasone Took 24 Seconds to Save the N.B.A.," The New
YorkTimes 28 Oct. 1984, Section 5, p. 2.4. ibid, p. 2.5. Roland
Lazenby, The NBA Finals: A Fifty-Year Celebration (Indianapolis:
Masters Press,1996), 70.6. The Associated Press, "Warriors Topple
Nats Five," The New York Times 30March 1956, p. 15.7. Leonard
Koppett, "Knicks Take First Title, Beat Lakers, 113-99," The New York
Times 9May 1970, p. 1.8. NBA's Greatest Games: Game Seven 1970 NBA
Finals. New York: NBA Properties1994.9. "You Gotta Have Heart,"
Newsweek 18 May 1970, p. 93.10. Bob Logan, "Frazier Stars in Rout of
Lakers," The Chicago Tribune 9 May 1970, Section2, p. 1.11. "You
Gotta Have Heart," Newsweek 18 May 1970, p. 93.12. William
Marsano, "Will it be the Game of the '70s?" TV Guide 4 April 1970, p.
15. 13. Jack Craig, "A TV Bone in the NBA's Throat," The Sporting
News 24 Jan. 1983, p. 17.14. Jack McCallum, "Larry Bird and Magic
Johnson," Sports Illustrated 19 Sept. 1994, p. 67.15. Bob Ryan, "The
Two and Only," Sports Illustrated 14 Dec. 1992, p. 50.16. Jack
Craig, "Record NBA TV Rating," The Sporting News 25 June 1984, p. 11.
17. Roland Lazenby, The NBA Finals: A Fifty-Year Celebration
(Indianapolis: Masters Press,1996), 234.18. Bob Ryan, "The Two and
Only," Sports Illustrated 14 Dec. 1992, p. 50.springboard to
Chicago's television dominance of the NBA over the next
eightyears.Notes
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Page 101
9419. "Top Rate," The New York Times 19 June 1987, p. D23. 20. Jack
McCallum, "Larry Bird and Magic Johnson," Sports Illustrated 19 Sept.
1994, p. 67. 21. Steve Nidetz, "NBC's Biggest Fear? Same As Lakers'"
The Chicago Tribune 2 June1991: Section 3A, p. 7.22. David
Aldridge, "Bulls Just Miss as Lakers Take Game 1, 93-91," The
Washington Post 3June 1991, p. B1.23. ibid, p. B1. 24. Tom
Bierbaum, "Peacock Sells Jordan Farewell," Variety 15 June 1998, p.
26. 25. ibid, p. 26.
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95CHAPTER 8HOW TELEVISION CHANGED SPORTSSports on television also
changed the way in which sportswriters coveredthe games. By the 1960s
television was capturing the drama of sports on the field,so writers
consistently had to find other ways to report the games. L.C.
Johnson, areporter for the Orlando Sentinel, said:It (television)
makes it a lot more challenging to cover it (basketball). Bythe time
the paper comes out, many fans have either been to the game orseen it
on television or seen highlights on ESPN. You have to get
moreanalytical to give insight into why the outcome occurred, rather
than justreporting what happened.This change resulted in reporters
seeking the opinions of others to cover theaspects of the games that
were hidden by the cameras. Thus, postgame interviewswith coaches and
players became a ritual.According to Benjamin G. Rader, other
sportswriters in the 1960s,influenced by the Vietnam War, sought to
attack modern sports themselves. Theywent about trying to shatter the
illusions of sports and subject them to the sameclose scrutiny as
other institutions.1They explored issues like racism, sexism,drugs,
religion, gambling, cheating, and violence in sports, as well as the
financialaspects.2Sometimes fans would find more courtroom,
boardroom, or privateinformation about sports than information about
what transpired on the field ofplay.3Johnson, who has covered the NBA
for seven or eight years since 1987,
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96has seen the results of these changes since the NBA began to
flourish on televisionin the mid-1980s: The biggest change is it's no
longer a game anymore. There's so muchmore stuff now, you've gotta
check the police blotter, a lot of business-oriented stuff since the
leagues are so prosperous. The biggest change iswe have to delve into
the personal lives more because of TV coverage. Itmakes you have to
be well-rounded, and that makes it tougher to report.Perhaps no sport
was more influenced by the advent of television thanprofessional
basketball. From the earliest days of television, NBA officials
realizedthe power of the medium and they realized that any chances
they had for successwere directly linked to their survival on
television. This was evident when LindseyNelson addressed the issue
of the television timeout in his autobiography, HelloEverybody, I'm
Lindsey Nelson. Nelson wrote that during the 1950s, NBAcommissioner
Maurice Podoloff "knew that the future of his sport lay in its
successon the tube."4Podoloff would order a timeout whenever
television needed one bywalking up to one of the coaches and telling
him to call a timeout.5Players andcoaches alike were concerned with
the way their game was presented on television,even during the
league's first decade on television.6This made it clear that
everyonein the NBA knew that league success was directly related to
television.7NBA officials also knew that in order to appeal to
viewers, they would haveto implement rules that would make the NBA
product more viewer-friendly. In theearly 1950s, the NBA suffered
from the perception that it was a slow-paced game. This was due to
the fact that in those days, if a team had the lead into the
fourthquarter, it would "freeze the ball" and turn the game into a
tedious foul-shootingexhibition.8This display threatened the NBA's
survival on television, so in 1954 the
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97league adopted a 24-second clock in an effort to "speed up the
game."9The NBA also handled the excessive fouling situation when a
rule wasadopted that limited the number of fouls a team could commit
per quarter, afterwhich each foul became a shooting foul.10The
effects of the rules changes wereimmediate, as NBA scoring increased
by 13.6 points per game from the previousyear.11In 1966, the NBA
reduced the team limit of fouls to five per quarter, andin the last
two minutes of any quarter a team was allowed one foul before
thepenalty, even if it had used up all of its fouls.12In 1979, the
league adopted thethree-point shot that had been met with so much fan
approval in the ABA, and theschedule was altered so division rivals
would face each other more often than teamsfrom other divisions.13In
1981, the NBA started its season three weeks later thanusual to avoid
playing the NBA Finals during May sweeps.14The NBA alsoavoided head-
to-head competition with the World Series.15The main benefit wasthat
the championship series would be carried live by CBS.16The NBA
changed some of its more puzzling rules during the early 1980s inan
effort to appease viewers.17Fouling in the backcourt was treated as a
commonfoul, and it was ruled that a free throw shooter could no
longer take three freethrows to make two, or two to make one.18Also,
the "illegal defense" rule wasadopted, which prevented teams from
double-teaming a player before he receivedthe ball.19Like the rule
changes in the mid-1950s, these changes were made "in aneffort to
speed up the game."20The NBA also allowed CBS to reduce the numberof
its telecasts to avoid oversaturation of its product by cable
telecasts.21Slowly,ratings began to improve.
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98In the mid-1990s, following a poor championship series between the
Knicksand the Rockets, the league reacted again. New York's defensive
style had beenblamed for the poor ratings the 1994 NBA Finals
received, so the following year theNBA eliminated handchecking.22This
meant that if a defensive player placed hishands on his opponent, it
would be an automatic foul. The rule change was made inan effort to
allow offensive players more freedom to be creative.23Television was
also responsible for several franchise shifts during theleague's
history, though writers at the time did not comment on it (See
AppendixA). However, in retrospect, it was determined that many
franchises moved tolarger markets in an attempt to increase
attendance figures and television ratings. The NBA reached a
milestone in 1957, when the Fort Wayne Pistons moved toDetroit and
the Rochester Royals moved to Cincinnati.24This was
significantbecause only three years earlier, half of the league's
teams were based in smallmetropolitan areas of less than 1 million
people.25That year, only Syracuse was inthat category.26In 1960, the
Minneapolis Lakers followed the baseball Dodgerswest to Los Angeles,
one of the largest markets in the country. In 1963, theSyracuse
Nationals moved to Philadelphia and the NBA had all eight of
itsfranchises in major cities for the first time ever.27The league
added anotherlucrative market through expansion when the Chicago
Bulls entered the league in1966. One year later, San Diego and
Seattle were added to the NBA mix.28In1968, Bob Kerner sold his St.
Louis Hawks for financial reasons and the team wasmoved to
Atlanta.29That same year, the NBA expanded yet again when Phoenixand
Milwaukee joined the league.30The NBA merged with the ABA in the mid-
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Page 106
991. Benjamin G. Rader, In Its Own Image: How Television Has
Transformed Sports (NewYork: The Free Press, 1984), 23.2. ibid, p.
23.3. ibid, p. 23.4. Lindsey Nelson, Hello Everybody, I'm Lindsey
Nelson (New York: Beech Tree Books,1985), 261.5. ibid, p.
261.6. "Hooping it Up for Television," TV Guide 7 Feb. 1959, p. 23.7.
William Marsano, "Will it be the Game of the 1970s?" TV Guide 4 April
1970, p. 4.8. "24 Seconds to Shoot," Time 20 Dec. 1954, p.
56.9. "Basketball Loop Changes 2 Rules," The New York Times 24 April
1954, p. 23.10. Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA Encyclopedia
(New York: Villard Books, 1994),61-62.11. ibid, p. 62.1970s in part
because there were certain ABA teams CBS wanted to see in
theleague.31Thus, television not only changed the way sports are
packaged andpresented to the fan, it also changed the way sports are
covered by journalists. Television has forced franchise relocations
and rule changes that serve to maximizea league's television dollars.
And in presenting the games though the medium oftelevision, the game
becomes of secondary importance to writers, who must findnew ways of
covering the games. This has resulted in a shift in emphasis to
thepersonal lives of the athletes and more analysis of what occurred
on the field, aswell as discussion of the financial and legal aspects
of sports. Without question,reporting has been made more complex by
the presence of television.Notes
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Page 107
10012. Zander Hollander (ed.) & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA
Encyclopedia (NewYork: Villard Books, 1989), 98.13. ibid, 163.14.
Bruce Newman, "The NBA Goes Back to School," Sports Illustrated 9
Nov. 1982, p. 41. 15. ibid, p. 41.16. ibid, p. 41.17. ibid, p. 42.18.
ibid, p. 42.19. ibid, p. 47.20. Thomas Rogers, "N.B.A. Eliminates
Bonus Free Throws," The New York Times 31 July1981, p. A14.21. Jack
Craig, "A TV Bone in the NBA's Throat," The Sporting News 24 Jan.
1983, p. 17.22. George Vescey, "Combating Hand-Checks the World
Over," The New York Times 6 Nov.1994, Section 8, p. 5.23. ibid, p.
5.24. Zander Hollander (ed.) & Alex Sachare (ed.), The Official NBA
Encyclopedia (NewYork: Villard Books, 1989), 72.25. ibid, p. 72.26.
ibid, p. 72.27. ibid, p. 88.28. The Associated Press, "Team Will
Start in 1967-68 Season," The New York Times 21Dec. 1966, p. 50.29.
The Associated Press, "St. Louis Losing Hawks to Atlanta," The
Washington Post 4 May1968, p. D2.30. "Milwaukee and Phoenix Obtain
N.B.A. Franchises for Next Season," The New YorkTimes 23 Jan. 1968,
p. 30.31. Sam Goldaper, "N.B.A. Gets Merger Spur," The New York Times
15 May 1975, p. S5.
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Page 108
101CHAPTER 9ANALYSIS: A COMPARISON BETWEEN 1980s NBA GAMES AND
1990sNBA GAMESEver since the NBA's introduction on television in the
1950s, the basic formulafor broadcasting games has remained the same:
Announcers deliver the outcome ofplays and events during the games,
and the cameras reflect the words of theannouncers. During the NBA's
run on NBC from the late '50s to the early '60s,baseball and football
play-by-play man Lindsey Nelson anchored network coverage. His
partner in the color analyst position was former Knick coach Joe
Lapchick. Lapchick's job was to deliver analysis of each important
play as it unfolded and tobring the casual viewer the nuances of what
had occurred in the game. The twoannouncers complemented each other
in terms of explaining the entire picture of aplay or sequence of
plays to an audience. This is a formula that has been used infootball
and baseball coverage as well. The formula has remained unchanged
fornetwork coverage of the NBA, with the exception of the occasional
third man in thebooth and the addition of sideline reporters and more
studio hosts.As the league entered the '70s, there was a change in
the style of coverage ofNBA games. Replays had been introduced in the
1960s to give viewers a second glance at certain plays. Then, in
1973, ABC hired Bill Russell, the ex-Celtic player,to be its color
analyst. Russell's scathing remarks about players and teams broughta
new aspect to game analysis, that of increased criticism.1Soon former
playersbegan to populate the color analyst chair. After all, who
better than an ex-player todiscern the important and spectacular
plays from the routine. Also, since the former
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102player had actually been in similar situations to the players in
the game, he couldrelate their feelings and their state of mind
during crucial segments of the game.While coverage of the games
themselves evolved, so did the technologicalsophistication of the
broadcasts. In addition to replays, different camera angleswere used
to capture images from different perspectives to allow the
viewersseveral different looks at a particular play. When the NBA
experienced itspopularity explosion in the 1980s, NBA telecasts
evolved into lengthy pregameshows and several player features to
prepare viewers for the drama of the games. Halftime shows featured
analysis of the game at that point, and analysts offered cuesfor
viewers to look for if one team were to gain an advantage over the
other. To deliver more insight into what the players and coaches were
saying duringthe actual games, sideline reporters prowled the
sidelines to ask questions duringtimeouts and before and after the
games. The sideline reporter has become apermanent part of the NBA
halftime show, where each coach is asked questionsabout his team's
performance in the first half, as well as areas to improve upon inthe
second half. Finally, postgame shows became more involved because
moreanalysis of significant plays and significant performances by
players was required.To examine the technical and analytical
evolution of NBA telecasts over theyears, five games were selected.
Two of the games, Kansas City-Houston in 1980,2and Boston-Milwaukee
in 1983,3were regional telecasts that epitomized NBAcoverage in the
early part of the decade. Game Five of the 1987 NBA Finals,4Game Four
of the 1991 NBA Finals,5and Game One of the 1998 NBA
Finals6werenational telecasts that showed the evolution of NBA
coverage during
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103the league's most successful years. Each of these games was
examined in terms ofcontent and technological advancements to
determine how the league's coveragewas similar or how it was
different as the NBA went from poverty in the early '80sto prosperity
in the late '80s and '90s.1970s TelecastsBefore these games were
examined, three "NBA's Greatest Games" telecaststhat aired on ESPN
were examined for their content to see how coverage wascarried out in
the 1970s: Game Five of the 1976 NBA Finals,7Game Six of the1977 NBA
Finals,8and Game Seven of the 1979 Eastern Conference
Finals.9Eachtelecast was examined to determine how analysis and
technology played a role inNBA broadcasts during the 1970s.In
examining coverage of the NBA during the 1970s, the researcher found
thatthe play-by-play announcer dominated the discussion during the
games, with thecolor analyst speaking occasionally to comment on a
replay or an importantsituation he had picked up. For example, during
the 1976 Greatest Games telecastof the Celtics-Suns NBA Finals, color
analyst Rick Barry noted that when a playerhad the ball and was
running upcourt, he always had to be careful with an opposingplayer
pursuing him. Barry made this point when Boston guard Jo Jo
Whiteknocked the ball away from a Phoenix player from behind as the
player ranupcourt.10Barry was another in the long line of player-
analysts, though his career was notquite finished in 1976 when he
joined CBS play-by-play man Brent Musburger forthe Finals telecast.
Barry, one of the greatest players in NBA history, was also one
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104of the most disliked players in the league--by his own teammates
as well.11Hisreputation as a perfectionist and his sharp tongue were
perfectly suited foranalyzing NBA action.12When a player made a
mistake, Barry usually had a remarkabout it. For instance, during the
same Celtics-Suns game, Barry remarked on afoul by Celtic Don Nelson
on a jump-shooting Phoenix guard: "Why small forwardswanna be shot
blockers is beyond me."13Barry continued the tradition started
byRussell for his honest analysis.Barry also provided analysis during
replays, as is still done today. In the 1970s,replays usually
occurred after a player was fouled or as a game went to commercial.
This was when the color analyst would attempt to break down what had
happenedduring the play. These analyses often retold viewers what
they had already seenwith no diagramming of plays or attempts to
discuss what other players should orshould not have done during the
play. For example, during the 1979 Eastern Finals telecast between
the Bullets andthe Spurs, George Gervin was fouled attempting a jump
shot. In the analysisduring the replay, the color analyst stated, "He
took a turnaround jump shot right inCJ's face to drop in a possible
three-pointer."14There was no mention of howGervin was left alone
with the defender or what transpired away from the ball to allow
Gervin to get the ball in a scoring position. This unsophisticated
analysisbears a slight resemblance to today's intricate analysis of
plays.During the course of analyzing the tapes from these "Greatest
Games", theresearcher came upon two camera angles frequently used
during the telecast. Thefirst was the traditional sideline shot from
which the player with the ball could befollowed heading up the court.
The second was a shot from behind the basket
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105where plays made near the basket area could be more easily seen.
The only timetwo replays of the same play were shown in the analysis
was in Game Six of the1977 NBA Finals. There, Julius "Dr. J" Erving
dunked over Portland center BillWalton, and the play was shown from
two different angles, both in slow-motion. Inaddition, after a score,
the player who had scored would be shown in a close-upshot. This part
of network coverage has remained consistent throughout the last
20years. Before the start of the action or during a timeout, the two
coaches and bencheswould be shown in tight shots. The score graphic
appeared at the bottom of the screen after each score for only a few
seconds, and when the shot clock wasrunning down CBS provided a small
blue graphic in the left portion of the screenthat showed the clock
running out. Also, when the game clock ran inside of twominutes, CBS
would display the clock in the lower right-hand portion of thescreen.
This was significant because it allowed fans to see how much time was
left on allof the important possessions for each team. This way, a
viewer would not have toguess how much time was left in the shot
clock or in the game. Also, by showing ascore graphic after each
basket, viewers were able to keep pace with the scoringand see how
much a team led by. This coverage was consistent throughout thethree
games examined from the NBA's "Greatest Games" collection. In the
early1980s, the coverage would remain virtually unchanged.Pregame
Coverage in the 1980sPregame coverage in the 1980s was limited
because of the league's struggles ontelevision in the early part of
the decade. Even the 1987 NBA Finals had a short
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106pregame show as the NBA began to garner national attention.
However, there wereaspects of pregame coverage in the 1980s that are
still used in the 1990s. Theseincluded the teases, player lineups,
and the introduction of announcers. Changesincluded the addition of
studio hosts and more in-depth analysis of the first-half. These
changes were important because the studio hosts would usually keep
theviewer updated on scores and highlights from around the league.
They alsoprovided features on key players in the games and kept fans
updated on the status ofthe two teams participating. More in-depth
analysis of the first half allowed viewersto see why one team was
leading and which players were making significantcontributions for
each team. Also, viewers were allowed to see plays in the firsthalf
that were well-executed and what the teams had to do to win in the
second half.TeasesThe purpose of the tease is to entice the viewer
into watching the game and toexplain why the game would be worth
watching. For example, the tease for theKansas City-Houston game in
1980 highlighted the two best players on each team,Otis Birdsong for
Kansas City and Moses Malone for Houston.15This teasefocused on what
the network felt would be the two pivotal players in deciding
thegame's outcome, and that served as a basis to reel in viewers. The
tease issignificant because it lures the fan to watch the telecast,
and what better way toaccomplish that than to focus on the marquee
players for each team.Introduction of AnnouncersThe announcer
introduction usually follows the tease for NBA games. Theannouncers
simply introduce themselves and their pictures are usually captured
witha graphic underneath that shows their names. For example, in the
Kansas City-
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107Houston game, after a graphic was shown indicating the two teams
identities andthe location of the game, the cameras switched to the
announcers. Frank Gleiberintroduced his partner John McGlocklin and
himself while name graphics wereplaced under each of them.16This
serves to let viewers see who is calling the game.In recent years
however, the format has changed. The studio hosts usually
areintroduced first to begin the pregame show, then towards the end
of the pregameshow the announcers who call the game are introduced.
For example, at the start ofthe pregame show for the 1991 NBA Finals,
Bob Costas introduced Pat Riley andhimself to the audience, then
launched into the pregame show.17At the end of thepregame, they
finally "tossed" the broadcast to game announcers Marv Albert andMike
Fratello.18This new style of introduction allows the fan to more
clearlyseparate the pregame festivities from the actual game itself.
It also allows the gameannouncers to focus on the task at hand, while
the studio hosts usually cover abroader range of topics than the game
itself. This is not only a staple of NBAtelecasts, but of all sports
telecasts.Team Lineups/Injury ReportTo set the stage for the game,
player lineups are introduced to show the fanswho will be playing in
the game. Key statistics for certain players are highlighted toshow
their strengths, and injuries are reported to show how the absence of
certainplayers could affect their teams. In the pregame show for the
1983 Milwaukee-Boston playoff game, the announcers commented at
length on Larry Bird's absencesince he was sick with the flu, and how
that would affect the Celtics in the game.19The player lineups are
the television viewers' scorecards for knowing who will bestarting in
the game so they know who they are watching individually.
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1081990s PregameIn the 1990s, the three basic aspects of the pregame
show have not changed. However, with respect to the NBA Finals, the
teases have become more detailedand elaborate. Also, since NBA Finals
games are the most important games of theseason, injury reports
became more detailed and pregame shows became moreinvolved.TeasesFor
instance, the tease for Game Four of the 1991 NBA Finals showed
agroup of children playing basketball on an outside court.20Bob
Costas of NBC didthe voice-over narration, saying that the children
most wanted to be likeMichaelJordan. In time the image of the
children faded and Jordan's image replaced them. His highlights from
the first three games of the Finals were displayed as Costascontinued
his narration.21This more elaborate pregame tease was repeated prior
to the start of GameOne of the 1998 NBA Finals. This time the opening
shot was of a man in a gympracticing, again accompanied by a Costas
voice-over.22The premise for thisopening sequence was that each of
the players on Utah and Chicago had workedhard to reach the NBA
Finals. Gradually, the image of the man in the gym fadedand was
replaced by images of the Bulls' previous NBA Finals highlights, as
well asimages of the 1997 NBA Finals between Utah and Chicago.23
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109Injury ReportThis elaborate opening sequence was just one aspect
of the increasinglydetailed and sophisticated NBA pregame show. For
instance, in the 1980 Houston-Kansas City game, announcer Frank
Gleiber reported on an injury to Houston guardCalvin Murphy and
commented on a facial injury to Kansas City forward
ScottWedman.24There was no video footage of the injuries and there
were no interviewsdone with any teammates or the players themselves
to discuss the injuries. In the1991 NBA Finals, NBC showed Jordan
limping into the locker room before thegame as he arrived at the
stadium.25Studio hosts Bob Costas and Pat Riley thenspeculated on the
severity of a toe injury Jordan had sustained in game
three.26Sideline reporter Ahmad Rashad discussed the therapy Jordan
had undergone afterthe previous game while the instance of Jordan's
injury was replayed for viewers.27Finally, viewers were shown an
image of Jordan's new shoe, which was cut openslightly at the toe to
allow him to feel more comfortable.28In the 1998 NBA Finals, NBA
added to its injury report when commentingon Dennis Rodman's injured
thumb. As in 1991, NBC camera crews caughtRodman as he arrived at the
stadium while Costas reported on his injury. Thistime, sideline
reporter Jim Grey interviewed Rodman in the locker room before
thegame began to get his perspective on the injured
thumb.29Afterwards, studio hostsHannah Storm and Bill Walton
discussed the ramifications Rodman's injury wouldhave on the Bulls'
defense, particularly against Utah Jazz forward Karl Malone.30Thus
NBC covered the injury, got the perspective of the injured player,
anddiscussed how the injury would affect his team. This was a clear
advancement fromthe 1980 and 1983 games in which player absences were
mentioned briefly and only
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110Bird's absence was discussed at length.31None of the pregame
interviews fromthose games discussed player injuries, and there was
little discussion of the potentialeffects on the team.AnalysisWhile
player injury reports have become more detailed, so have
thediscussions of what each team would have to do to win the game.
During 1980scoverage, announcers usually mentioned two or three
aspects of the game that ateam had to control in order to win. There
was no video accompaniment orexplanation of how the teams might
accomplish their goals. By the 1990s, this hadall changed.For
instance, in the 1991 NBA Finals, announcers Marv Albert and
MikeFratello examined the Lakers' problems in the first three games
of the series.32Specifically, these problems were the Lakers' lack of
rebounding, shooting guardByron Scott's shooting problems in the
series, and the Bulls' pressure defense.33The discussions of these
problems were supported by graphics highlighting theLakers'
ineptitudes in rebounding, Scott's shooting, and the team's overall
shootingwoes.34In addition, highlights of Chicago blocked shots and
steals and pressure onthe ball were shown to accompany Fratello's
analysis.35In the 1998 NBA Finals, announcers Bob Costas, Isiah
Thomas, and DougCollins discussed what Utah and Chicago had to do to
win the series.36For Utah,the problem was how to deal with Michael
Jordan. As Thomas discussed how todeal with Jordan, highlights of
various plays that Jordan had made in certainsituations were shown to
viewers.37Doug Collins said that for Chicago to besuccessful, it
would have to defend against Utah's pick-and-roll offense. Collins
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111discussed the various options Utah had when running the pick-and-
roll with the aidof game footage.38This was done with the use of a
telestrater, which is anothername for a replay on which the color
analyst diagrams what viewers will see withthe use of a light pen.
The telestrater allowed Collins and Thomas to point out toviewers
exactly what to look for as the play unfolded. This
technologicalsophistication was an advancement over the pregame show
for the 1991 NBAFinals, when the highlights of Fratello's
announcement were shown without the useof a telestrater. After these
breakdowns in game action, the game usually was readyto start.1980s
Game CoverageIn the early 1980s, commentary from announcers was
unsophisticated anddid little more than explain the results of the
previous play. Announcers usuallyused the opportunity of a player
scoring a basket or doing something spectacular asan opportunity to
reveal that player's background to the audience. There were
nointricate play breakdowns or chalkboards until the late 1980s.In
the 1990s, commentary has become more detailed. Color analysts
havebecome more critical during the course of games, and there is
more discussion ofstrategy than before. Also, announcers have become
more proficient at informingviewers of the subtleties of a play than
ever before. Game coverage from the 1980sto 1990s was examined from
four different areas: commentary during the games,including that of
sideline reporters, themes of the games, and use of replays, and
theuse of graphics. It was noted that commentary has become more
sophisticated,there is more of an emphasis on describing the themes
of the games, the use ofreplays and graphics is more profound now
than ever.
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112CommentaryCommentary in the early 1980s by the play-by-play
announcer remainsvirtually unchanged today. It is the play-by-play
man's job to give the viewer keystatistics and figures while calling
the game. It is also his job to elicit strategydiscussion from his
color analyst. Also, the play-by-play announcer provides
playerbackgrounds and generally acts as the tour guide of the NBA
game.For example, when Houston guard Allan Leavell scored in the
first quarteragainst Kansas City, announcers Frank Gleiber and John
McGlocklin used theopportunity to talk about how big of a surprise
Leavell had been as a rookie.39Hewas the 104th player selected in the
draft in 1979, but Gleiber and McGlocklinagreed that he had earned a
spot on the All-Rookie team.40This was an instant inwhich a player's
score allowed Gleiber and McGlocklin to inform the viewer
aboutLeavell's play during the season.The analysis of the color
commentator was not as insightful in the early1980s as it has become
in the 1990s. McGlocklin would review a play after a fouland describe
what the audience had already seen the first time, without
describinghow the play was designed or any of the other subtleties
that viewers might havemissed. McGlocklin also commented on lineup
changes and how Houston andKansas City matched up with each other.
However, when he said he felt that theRockets could not match up with
Scott Wedman of Kansas City, McGlocklin didnot elaborate on why he
felt that way.In the early 1980s coverage was also restricted by the
fact that there wereno quarter summaries or other key points of the
game that the broadcasters outlinedfor the fans. Not until the NBA
experienced its popularity surge in the
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113late 1980s did announcers begin to break down the game into a
story of fourquarters. This was done with the addition of graphics,
which will be discussed later.As television coverage of the NBA
evolved, so did the style of announcing. In the early 1980s, the play-
by-play man set the stage for each play and each gameby announcing
key facts the viewer should look for. The color commentatorprovided
play analysis and assessed team strategies, as well as player
substitutionsand strengths and weaknesses. It is also the job of the
color commentator tocriticize players or coaches if he feels they
made a mistake. In the 1987 NBA Finals, Dick Stockton and Tom
Heinsohn provided thefoundation for the way NBA games are broadcast
today. Stockton reported theimportant facts and key statistics of the
game, while Heinsohn provided analysis andstrategies for both teams.
Stockton was often criticized for being too noncommittalin his
analysis. It was suggested by more than one journalist that he
reportedinnocuous statistics rather than take the time to levy
important criticism or discussgame strategy.41Heinsohn was criticized
by many because, as a former Celticplayer, he was seen as a Celtic
booster. On the other hand, Celtic fans believedHeinsohn was going
out of his way on telecasts to criticize the Celtics and provethat he
was not biased.42Heinsohn also was criticized for his distinctive New
Jerseyaccent and what some felt was his curious use of the English
language.43During the Celtics-Lakers NBA Finals game, Heinsohn
provided someinsightful commentary. For example, he informed Stockton
and the televisionaudience that the Lakers' plan was not necessarily
to score on the fast break, but to
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114continue to run to put pressure on Boston's tired starters.44He
also noted that abigger Laker lineup might have slowed the Laker fast
break, but it did provide theLakers with more defensive strength to
keep Boston's dominant frontcourt playersout of rebounding position.
For his part, Stockton coaxed these insights fromHeinsohn by
questioning whether the Lakers' inability to score on the fast break
washurting them. He also noted the substitution of Laker center
Mychal Thompson andquestioned whether it would slow the Laker fast
break as well.45In the late 1980s, networks added a sideline reporter
to their NBA telecaststo give viewers information about player
injuries and to talk to prominent fans inattendance. In addition to
Heinsohn and Stockton, sideline reporter James Brownprovided
information during the game as well. During the game, he
interviewedCeltic great Bob Cousy on how he would compare his style
of play with that ofLaker great Magic Johnson. Brown later reported
during the second quarter fromthe cramped quarters of the Laker's
video coordinator in Boston Garden. The mostimportant contribution of
the sideline reporter is to get quick access to informationabout
injuries, which Brown did when he reported on Laker Michael Cooper's
anklesprain that forced him to leave the game. Brown's final report
during the gamecame as he chatted with Laker fan Jack Nicholson from
Nicholson's seat in theBoston Garden.46As the 1990s began, NBA
coverage became more sophisticated. NBCacquired the rights to NBA
telecasts from CBS, and when the 1991 NBA Finalsbegan, the network
had two studio hosts, two announcers to call the game, and
twosideline reporters. Marv Albert, considered by many to be the best
play-by-
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115play announcer in basketball, was signed by NBC.47Albert, like
Stockton, providedkey facts and statistics to the viewers at home.
Mike Fratello, Albert'ssidekick at color commentator, also provided
some important insights. Forinstance, Fratello pointed out that the
Lakers had redesigned their offense in aneffort to try to get more
scoring against the Bulls. Fratello also noted that theLakers' lack
of scoring from the field, particularly the three-point line and the
freethrow line, had cost the Lakers in Game Three of the series.
Fratello added that theLakers would have to improve their rebounding
if they had a chance of beatingChicago. In the 1990s, the role of the
sideline reporter has expanded to includereporting what coaches and
players are saying during timeouts and during halftime. During the
NBA Finals, NBC placed two sideline reporters on each bench to
getreactions from both teams during a game. The sideline reporter has
evolved into animportant part of any NBA telecast. In the 1991 NBA
Finals, the sideline reportingchores were handled by two men, Ahmad
Rashad and Steve Jones. Rashadreported from the Chicago bench, while
Jones provided reports from the Lakerbench. Rashad provided two
reports during the game about Jordan's toe injury. The first report
concerned the injury itself and how Jordan was feeling, while
thesecond report concerned the fact that Jordan had changed his shoes
during atimeout in order to improve his comfort. Rashad has remained
NBC's sidelinereporter, but he has endured more than his share of
criticism. Journalists havecalled Rashad's work "fluff", and they
regularly comment on his close relationshipwith Jordan that seemingly
interferes with his job as a reporter.48
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116The other sideline reporter, Steve Jones, provided four reports
from theLaker bench during the game. First, after the third quarter
began, Jones reportedthat Laker coach Mike Dunleavy was upset with
the Laker's lack of intensity in thefirst half. Then, after Laker
forward James Worthy limped to the locker room,Jones reported that
the ankle injury he had sustained in the previous series hadworsened.
Later in the period Jones added that Worthy would not return to the
game and would be doubtful for Game Five. Finally, after Laker guard
Byron Scottfell and hurt his shoulder, Jones reported that Scott was
feeling better and that theLakers were looking to set up scoring
opportunities for him.Game One of the 1998 NBA Finals saw a change in
the basic announcerformat, with three announcers calling the game
instead of two. There were twostudio hosts and two sideline reporters
as well. Marv Albert, who resigned fromNBC due to his legal problems,
was replaced by former studio host Bob Costas. Costas is widely
respected as one of the best announcers in sports, and he waspraised
for his work in replacing Albert by doing "his usual splendid play-by-
playwork."49Doug Collins, a former NBA coach and player, "is the best
basketballanalyst--NBA or college--working right now."50Isiah Thomas,
the former Pistongreat, was criticized because of his use of language
and his "interminable stories thatdragged on over game action."51As
Stockton and Albert did before him, Costas provided viewers with
keystatistics and player backgrounds throughout the game. However,
unlike hispredecessors, Costas was critical of a player during the
game. In this case, it wasChicago Bulls' forward Dennis Rodman. When
Costas received word from AhmadRashad that the Bulls wanted to insert
Rodman but he was still in the locker room,
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117Costas said, "It's one thing to be idiosyncratic, it's another to
be idiotic."52Costaswould later return to the Rodman subject, when in
overtime he noted thecontradictions in Rodman as a player.Collins and
Thomas took turns adding their insight, with Thomascommenting on the
speed of the players on the floor and Collins remarking on theneed
for Utah forward Byron Russell not to use up his fouls so he could
help guardJordan. The two would continue to trade insights during the
game. Occasionally, apoint made by Collins would be expanded on by
Thomas, and sometimes it wasCollins who expanded on a point by
Thomas. The two color analysts clashed onlyonce: when in overtime
Karl Malone kicked the ball before Byron Russell picked itup. Thomas
argued that Chicago should have received the ball with a new 24-
second clock, while Collins argued that Malone had kicked the ball
inadvertently,which meant that Utah should retain possession of the
ball.53The only two sideline reports during the game came from Jim
Grey on theUtah bench, although Rashad was on the Chicago bench as
well. First, Greyreported during the second quarter that Utah guard
Jeff Hornacek's injured Achillestendon was hobbling him. Then, in
overtime, Grey reported that Utah coach JerrySloan told his players
to "get back into the game" since they were struggling.54Themes of
the GamesEach NBA telecast consists of a theme or themes that serve
to explain whyone team triumphs over another. Network commentators
present these themesduring the course of the games, and graphics are
often used to support their claims. This "game within a game"
scenario has changed since the NBA's struggles in the
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118early 1980s. At that time, there was little effort made to
describe what the turningpoints in the games were or to explain the
key statistics that decided the outcome.For example, in the Kansas
City-Houston game, announcers Frank Gleiberand John McGlocklin
touched on only two reasons for Kansas City's victory. McGlocklin
claimed that it was Kansas City's defense and in particular the
team'sdefense on Moses Malone that led to the Kings' victory. Gleiber
noted theshooting percentages for each team from the field to support
McGlocklin's theory,but there was never a graphic that was introduced
to support their claims.55In the Milwaukee-Boston playoff game, Eddie
Doucette and again JohnMcGlocklin broke the game themes down by
quarter. In the first quarter, as theCeltics got off to a good start,
the announcers noted Boston's strong guard play,tighter defense than
in Game One, and the changed substitution pattern thatresulted from
the absence of Larry Bird. Second quarter themes included Celticguard
Danny Ainge's hot shooting, the fact the Boston and Milwaukee had
reversedroles from Game One, and a focus on Milwaukee's struggles
offensively. In thethird quarter, McGlocklin and Doucette focused on
Milwaukee's comeback incutting a 17-point halftime deficit to 6. In
the fourth quarter, the announcersclaimed that it was Milwaukee's
aggressiveness in the areas of rebounding anddefense that led to
their come-from-behind victory.56In the 1987 NBA Finals, Dick
Stockton and Tom Heinsohn continued theprocess of describing what
they felt were key moments in the game. The firstquarter began with
Heinsohn stressing the importance of the Celtic tempo to slowdown the
Laker fast break. In the second quarter, Heinsohn and Stockton
returnedto the theme of the fast break. They noted that Boston had
surprisingly outscored
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119the Lakers on the fast break during the first half, and a graphic
flashed on the screento support their claim. Third quarter themes
included Danny Ainge's scoringoutburst and a Celtic scoring burst
that stretched a slim halftime advantage to adouble-digit lead. In
the fourth quarter, Heinsohn highlighted Celtic coach K.C.Jones' use
of this bench as a major reason for Boston's victory.57In the 1991
NBA Finals, Marv Albert and Mike Fratello provided a few keyaspects
for viewers during the first half of the Bulls-Lakers game. The
announcerscalled attention to Jordan's injury, Byron Scott's shooting
woes, the Bulls defensivepressure and athleticism, Johnson's fatigue,
and the Lakers' weak bench. As theBulls seized the advantage in the
third quarter, Fratello and Albert again pointed totwo themes for
Chicago's dominance. The Bulls' athleticism and defense was
againnoted, as well as what Fratello perceived as the Lakers' lack of
intensity. ByronScott's shooting problems were also stressed as a
reason for the Lakers' problems. In the final quarter, as the Bulls
pulled away for the victory, Fratello and Albertsingled out Chicago's
defensive greatness, the struggles of Laker forward SamPerkins, and
the injuries to Scott and James Worthy as reasons for the Laker
loss.58First half themes for Game One of the 1998 NBA Finals included
the issueof whether Utah had received too much rest before the start
of the Finals, KarlMalone's struggles, and Utah guard Jeff Hornacek's
injury to his Achilles. Third quarter themes included the struggles
of the two star players for each team,Jordan and Malone. In the
fourth quarter and again in overtime, the announcersconsistently
referred to the fact that Karl Malone had struggled. Also in
overtime,Isiah Thomas questioned the wisdom of Bulls coach Phil
Jackson for leaving guardSteve Kerr in the game. Kerr, who was not
known for his defense, allowed Utah
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120guard John Stockton to score his game-high eight points in the
overtime and clinchUtah's victory.59ReplaysSince the advent of the
television replay in the early 1960s, the NBA hasseen the use of
replays change as the years have gone by. In the late 1970s andearly
1980s, the use of replays was confined to either leading to a
commercialbreak, or being shown after a foul. The replays also
usually were shown from twodifferent camera angles: behind the basket
and from the sideline. Only thespectacular plays, such as a Julius
Erving dunk over Bill Walton in the 1977 NBA's"Greatest Games"
program, were shown more than once and from more than oneangle.60In
recent years however, the scope of the replay has changed.
Replays,which were once shown only after fouls and commercials, are
now shown morefrequently and sometimes during the course of the game.
The more spectacular theplay, the more often it is shown and
sometimes from as many as three differentangles. For example, in the
1991 NBA Finals, two different angles of the same passto Michael
Jordan for a layup were shown. Camera angles, which once wereconfined
to the sidelines and under the basket, now include overhead angles
andreverse angles. A camera mounted behind the basket gives fans a
closer perspectiveof a slam dunk that rattles the rim.61Replays for
the complete games reviewed by the researcher were counted tosee how
the use of replays has changed over the past 20 years. As expected,
thenumber of replays increased dramatically, as well as different
replay angles of thesame play. In the 1980 Kansas City-Houston game,
there were only 18 replaysused during the course of the game, with no
replay being shown more than once.62
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121These replays were shown either after fouls or leading to
commercial breaks. In the1983 playoff game, the numbers jumped to 35
replays, including three from twoangles.63Surprisingly, in the 1987
NBA Finals game, there were only 19 replays usedduring the game, and
there were none used of the same play.64The format wasconsistent with
the earlier games though. The replays were used only duringtimeouts
or after fouls, and they were accompanied by the analysis of the
colorcommentator. In the 1991 NBA Finals, the number of replays
jumped to 38, withnine of the replays being of the same play from a
different angle. These same playswere shown from the four different
angles that are now used in each basketballgame: under-the-basket,
sideline, overhead, and the reverse angle.65In the 1998NBA Finals,
the numbers increased to 60 different replays, including 12 of the
sameplay.66This number was significantly higher only because the game
went intoovertime, and with each play an important one, 15 replays
were shown in overtime. That meant there were 45 replays used during
the course of the four-quarter game,a number only slightly higher
than the total of 38 in Game Four of the 1991 NBAFinals.Replays are
not only used to show what happened, but to breakdown why aplay
occurred. In the early 1980s, the use of a chalkboard for the color
analyst touse to diagram a play was nonexistent. In the 1987 NBA
Finals however, TomHeinsohn used the CBS chalkboard to diagram Boston
forward Kevin McHalepassing out of a triple-team to a wide open
teammate for a dunk.67In the 1998NBA Finals, NBC used freeze frames
and spot shadows to show Utah's offensivetendencies and to show how
the Jazz defended against Michael Jordan.68
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122GraphicsGraphics have evolved over the last 20 years in NBA
coverage as well. Inthe late 1970s and early 1980s, the only graphics
used were the score graphics andthe shot clock graphic, which usually
appeared as the shot clock went under 10seconds. The game clock was
usually shown when the first and second halveswound down to under two
minutes. In the 1987 NBA Finals, the use of graphicsexpanded to
include fast break points for both teams and high scorers for each
team. In the 1991 NBA Finals, additional graphics were added that
included shootingpercentages for each quarter, scoring by quarters,
blocked shots, and other keystatistics. There was also the use of a
graphic comparing players at the sameposition and the star players of
each team. This use of graphics was consistent inthe 1998 NBA Finals,
with only a couple of minor changes. First, NBC displayed agraphic
showing the statistics of Utah's highly successful pick-and-roll play
duringthe first quarter. There was also a graphic introduced that
compared a player's restin game minutes to the total actual minutes
of rest. In addition, there was a graphicof a shot chart shown for
each team's best player, with the blue dots showing hismisses and the
red dots showing his makes.69All of these graphics demonstratedNBC's
desire to get viewers to see the important aspects of the game, and
toprovide them with constant reminders of why one team was beating
the other.
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123Halftime CoverageNBA halftime shows have changed the most since
the early 1980s, whenCBS aired an interview at halftime. Since then,
the halftime interview has remainedan important staple of the
halftime show. But there is also analysis of the gameitself, by the
studio hosts as well as the announcers. The format has changed so
thatthe studio hosts break down the first half, followed by a feature
orinterview. Then the game announcers break down the results of the
first half morespecifically with the aid of replays and graphics. The
halftime shows from each ofthe five games reviewed will be analyzed
in terms of content to see how much theformat has changed since
1980.ContentThe content of halftime shows for the NBA has changed
drastically since1980. In the Kansas City-Houston game from that
year, CBS' halftime showconsisted of a conversation between Brent
Musburger and Bill Russell about NBAcenters. There were no highlights
or interviews with players, just Musburger andRussell chatting on a
golf course in San Diego.70As television coverage evolved,halftime
coverage changed as well. The CBS halftime interview and three-on-
threecontests were replaced by more game-oriented features and more
analysis of thefirst half results.In the Boston-Milwaukee playoff
game in 1983, announcers Eddie Doucetteand John McGlocklin discussed
the first half and the strategy to be used in thesecond half.
Doucette noted that Ainge and Wedman from Boston had beenthe best
players in the first half, but Milwaukee had the advantage in
rebounding. Doucette also noted that Boston's inside defense had
taken the Bucks out of their
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124game and forced them to shoot from the outside, which they were
unsuccessful indoing. He also noted that if not for Bird's absence,
Wedman would not have had asmuch of an opportunity to play in the
first half as he did.71In the 1987 NBA Finals, Dick Stockton and Tom
Heinsohn described thestrategies for both teams before the second
half started.72In the 1991 NBA Finals, Bob Costas started the
halftime show by listing the leading scorers for each team. He added
that Johnson's assist-to-turnover ratio had improved in the first
half fromthe first three games of the series. Then Costas asked Pat
Riley to assess theLaker's problems in the first half. Riley cited
that the Lakers top three players werenot getting support from anyone
in the scoring department, and that the Bulls wereoutworking the
Lakers in the rebounding area. In addition, Costas and
Rileyinterviewed retired Laker legend Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, asking him
questionsranging from what he felt the Lakers chances were in the
series to what Abdul-Jabbar had been doing since he retired. After
the conclusion of the interview, NBCpresented a segment in which
Riley predicted the trends in the 1990s, from theplayer of the decade
to the coach and team of the decade.73After a commercial break,
Albert and Fratello assessed the first half for theLakers. Fratello
pointed out that the Lakers had struggled with their shooting andhad
no production from their shooting guards, and forward Sam Perkins had
notproduced as well. Two graphics were shown to support this. First,
a graphic onthe shooting percentages and Perkins' struggles from the
field was shown, followedby a second graphic on the rebounding
situation, with A.C. Green's team-high sevenrebounds singled out.
After another commercial break, sideline reporter Steve
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125Jones interviewed Laker coach Mike Dunleavy on how the Lakers
could remedytheir first-half problems. This interview coincided with
the start of the second half.74In the 1998 NBA Finals, the halftime
format changed slightly. Studio hostHannah Storm was joined by three
others at the table--former NBA players BillWalton and John Salley,
and New York Post writer Peter Vecsey. Storm began thehalftime show
by noting that Jordan had accounted for half of Chicago's 40 first-
halfpoints, then she added that the Utah bench had outscored
Chicago's bench 16-4. Next, Vecsey interviewed Chicago head coach
Phil Jackson on the impendingbreakup of the Bulls. The interview was
interspersed with images of the Bulls'previous championships, as well
as images of Jordan, Pippen, and Jackson. Afterthe interview, Storm
asked Vecsey to comment on the possibility that the 1998Bulls would
be broken up whether they won the championship or not.75After a
commercial break, Bill Walton assessed the first half. Hecommented on
Utah's dominant bench play, and as he did so replays of Utah
guardHoward Eisley and forward Shanden Anderson were shown to the
audience. Next,a graphic was displayed showing Anderson and Eisley's
scoring for the first half. John Salley then commented on Dennis
Rodman's first half and the fact that he hadfive rebounds despite the
thumb injury. As Salley talked, a replay was shown ofRodman grabbing
a rebound one-handed. Salley also noted that Rodman hadplayed good
defense on Karl Malone in the first half. Storm then broadcast
FrenchOpen results from earlier in the day and promoted NBC's French
Open coverage forthe weekend, before going to a commercial
break.76The opening image asNBC returned from its commercials was of
Stockton walking back onto the courtwhile Costas gave his first-half
statistics. Costas gave Jordan's first-half numbers as
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126the camera switched to Jordan exiting the locker room. After that,
a graphic onfirst-half trends was shown in which it was reiterated
that Jordan had half ofChicago's first-half points, and Chicago
teammates Toni Kukoc and Scottie Pippenhad struggled from the field.
Utah's first-half trends were Stockton and Eisley'sfirst-half
contributions, as well as Utah's 12-4 edge over Chicago in the fast-
breakdepartment. Collins then went to the telestrater and diagrammed
a pick-and-rollplay from the first half that left Stockton with a
wide-open shot, which he made. Apie graph of Utah's scoring in the
first half was shown, as well as a shot chart ofStockton's misses and
makes in the first half. This was followed by a pie chart ofChicago's
first-half scoring, as well as Jordan's shot chart for the first
half. Thomasprovided the voice-over for these graphics, as he read to
the viewers what theycould see on the screen.77After the commercial
break, sideline reporter Ahmad Rashad reported fromthe Bulls' bench
that Phil Jackson told the team to stop Utah's screen-roll, to
keepcontrolling the offensive tempo, and to look for the open man
when Jordan wasdouble-teamed. Jim Gray countered with a report from
the Utah bench that coachJerry Sloan had admonished his team's first-
half defensive effort and that he wantedmore double-teams on Jordan.
This last report transpired as the second halfbegan.78Postgame
CoverageWith regular programming almost always following NBA coverage
onnational television, postgame shows are usually not very long. The
format haschanged very little since the early 1980s, when postgame
interviews wereconducted with players and announcers revealed key
statistics. Depending on the
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127time and the day the NBA games are telecast, the postgame show can
be very longor brief in its duration.ContentAt the conclusion of the
1980 Kansas City-Houston regular-season game,announcer Frank Gleiber
noted the records for each team and a graphic was flashedthat showed
the second half of CBS' NBA doubleheader.79This was the extent ofthe
postgame coverage for that game, since viewers were immediately
switchedfollowing the commercial to the second game of the
doubleheader. At the end ofthe 1983 Boston-Milwaukee game, Eddie
Doucette noted Milwaukee hadoutscored the Celtics in the third and
fourth quarters, and he especially emphasizedthe Bucks' 21-9 spurt in
the fourth quarter to win it. He also noted that it wasBucks guard
Sidney Moncreif's runner in the lane that clinched it for the Bucks,
andcenter Bob Lanier's free throw put the game out of reach for
Boston.80Doucette rationalized that Bird's absence and Boston's
shortened bench onsuch a humid day wore the Celtics down at the end
of the game. Doucette alsoremarked that Milwaukee's rebounding
advantage was a key factor as well. McGlocklin conducted two postgame
interviews with Bucks' players about thecome-from-behind victory,
then the broadcast team signed off for the night.81After Game Five of
the 1987 NBA Finals ended, sideline reporter JamesBrown interviewed
Celtic guard Danny Ainge about Boston's chances of winningGame Six
and about his performance in Game Five. After a commercial
break,studio host Brent Musburger listed the scoring leaders for the
Celtics and Lakers. This was accompanied by a graphic of the box
score for each team.82Game Four ofthe 1991 NBA Finals ended with
hardly any postgame coverage. Marv Albert
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128simply recapped the high scorers for both teams, as well as the
key statistic thatChicago had outshot the Lakers 53 percent to 37
percent. Albert also noted thatthe Lakers had received no production
from forward Sam Perkins, who made justone out of fifteen shots for
the game. As Albert recounted these statistics, slowmotion replays of
Michael Jordan driving to the basket were shown. Jordan wasselected
as NBC's "Player of the Game."83The postgame show for Game One of the
1998 NBA Finals started with areplay of the last play of overtime, in
which Scottie Pippen missed the potentialgame-tying shot. Jim Gray
interviewed Karl Malone immediately after the gameended, and
highlights of Malone's performance were shown. Ahmad
Rashadinterviewed John Stockton, and again NBC showed replays of
Stockton'sperformance during the game. Costas wrapped up the coverage
with the statisticthat Chicago had lost its last four road playoff
games, and he set up the rest of thenight's programming and the
schedule for the next game as highlights of key playsfrom the game
were being shown. An extended postgame show was broadcast onCNBC,
which is not available nationally.84ConclusionThe overall results of
the changes made in NBA broadcasts over the years isthat the games
are presented in a more sophisticated manner than they ever
werebefore. The pregame and postgame shows are used to highlight
significant playsand individual performances that contributed to team
success. Also, the importantfactors that announcers feel decided the
outcome are relayed to the audience. Theuse of multiple replays and
various camera angles allows viewers to see the actionmore clearly,
and to see what occurs away from the ball as well. The detailed
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1291. Steve Gelman, "Network Basketball," TV Guide 19 March 1977, p.
36.2. NBA on CBS: Kansas City at Houston. Secaucus, NJ: NBA
Entertainment, Inc. 1980.3. 1983 Playoffs: Boston vs. Milwaukee.
Secaucus, NJ: NBA Entertainment, Inc. 1983. 4. 1987 Playoffs: Boston
vs. Los Angeles Game 5. Secaucus, NJ: NBA Entertainment, Inc.1987.5.
NBA on NBC: Game One 1991 NBA Finals. Los Angeles: NBC 1991.6. NBA on
NBC: Game One 1998 NBA Finals. Salt Lake City, Utah: NBC 1998.7.
NBA's Greatest Games: Game Five 1976 NBA Finals. New York: NBA
Properties 1995.8. NBA's Greatest Games: Game Six 1977 NBA Finals.
New York: NBA Properties 1995.9. NBA's Greatest Games: Game Seven
1979 Eastern Conference Finals. New York: NBAProperties 1996.10.
NBA's Greatest Games: Game Five 1976 NBA Finals. New York: NBA
Properties1995. 11. Tony Kornheiser, "A Voice Crying in the
Wilderness," Sports Illustrated 25 April 1983,p. 84.12. ibid, p.
94.13. NBA's Greatest Games: Game Five 1976 NBA Finals. New York: NBA
Properties1995.14. NBA's Greatest Games: Game Seven 1979 Eastern
Conference Finals. New York: NBAProperties 1996.graphics and game
themes reiterated by announcers show viewers what to look forwhen the
game's outcome is decided. Announcers provide more detailed
analysison replays and after baskets to let viewers know how a play
was made successful orhow a play failed. Finally, the use of sideline
reporters allows the audience tolearn about injury information and
team strategies during the course of a game. Allof these advances
have made for more sophisticated and detailed coverage of theNBA.Notes
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13015. NBA on CBS: Kansas City at Houston. Secaucus, NJ: NBA
Entertainment, Inc. 1980.16. NBA on CBS: Kansas City at Houston.
Secaucus, NJ: NBA Entertainment, Inc. 1980.17. NBA on NBC: Game Four
1991 NBA Finals. Los Angeles: NBC 1991.18. ibid.19. 1983 Playoffs:
Boston vs. Milwaukee. Secaucus, NJ: NBA Entertainment, Inc. 1983.20.
NBA on NBC: Game Four 1991 NBA Finals. Los Angeles: NBC 1991.21.
ibid.22. NBA on NBC: Game One 1998 NBA Finals. Salt Lake City, Utah:
NBC 1998.23. ibid.24. NBA on CBS: Kansas City at Houston. Secaucus,
NJ: NBA Entertainment, Inc. 1980.25. NBA on NBC: Game Four 1991 NBA
Finals. Los Angeles: NBC 1991.26. ibid.27. ibid.28. ibid.29. NBA on
NBC: Game One 1998 NBA Finals. Salt Lake City, Utah: NBC 1998.30.
ibid.31. 1983 Playoffs: Boston vs. Milwaukee. Secaucus, NJ: NBA
Entertainment, Inc. 1983.32. NBA on NBC: Game Four 1991 NBA Finals.
Los Angeles: NBC 1991.33. ibid.34. ibid.35. ibid.36. NBA on NBC: Game
One 1998 NBA Finals. Salt Lake City, Utah: NBC 1998.37. ibid.38.
ibid.39. NBA on CBS: Kansas City at Houston. Secaucus, NJ: NBA
Entertainment, Inc. 1980.40. ibid.
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13141. Jack Craig, "Kudos to CBS for NBA," The Sporting News 13 June
1983, p. 9.42. Skip Myslenski & Linda Kay, The Chicago Tribune 26 May
1986, p. C2.43. Larry Stewart, "He's Long Retired, But Laker Fans See
Heinsohn in Green," Los AngelesTimes 22 May 1987, Part 3, p. 3,
Column 1.44. 1987 Playoffs: Boston vs. Los Angeles. Secaucus, NJ: NBA
Entertainment, Inc. 1987.45. ibid.46. ibid.47. Leonard Shapiro, "NBC
Is Windy and Not at Peak in Chicago-Utah Finals Coverage," The
Washington Post 8 June 1997, p. D12.48. Richard Sandomir, "Reporter
or Celebrity Pal? Rashad Is Giving Jordan A Free Ride," The New York
Times 21 May 1996, p. B11, column 2.49. Joe Pollack, "NBA Finals
Terrific, NBC Coverage Horrific," St. Louis Journalism ReviewJuly-
August 1998, v28, p. 7.50. Milton Kent, "NBC's Coverage Somewhat New,
Much Improved," The Baltimore Sun 5June 1998, p. 2D.51. Rudy
Martzke, "Thomas Learning on Job as NBC's NBA Analyst." USA Today
11March 1998, p. 2C.52. NBA on NBC: Game One of the 1998 NBA Finals.
Salt Lake City, Utah: NBC 1998.53. ibid.54. ibid.55. NBA on CBS:
Kansas City at Houston. Secaucus, NJ: NBA Entertainment, Inc.
1980.56. 1983 Playoffs: Boston vs. Milwaukee. Secaucus, NJ: NBA
Entertainment, Inc. 1983.57. 1987 Playoffs: Boston vs. Los Angeles
Game 5. Secaucus, NJ: NBA Entertainment, Inc.1987.58. NBA on NBC:
Game Four 1991 NBA Finals. Los Angeles: NBC 1991.59. NBA on NBC: Game
One 1998 NBA Finals. Salt Lake City, Utah: NBC 1998.60. NBA's
Greatest Games: Game Six 1977 NBA Finals. New York: NBA Properties
1995.61. NBA on NBC: Game Four 1991 NBA Finals. Los Angeles: NBC
1991.62. NBA on CBS: Kansas City at Houston. Secaucus, NJ: NBA
Entertainment, Inc. 1980.
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13263. 1983 Playoffs: Boston vs. Milwaukee. Secaucus, NJ: NBA
Entertainment, Inc. 1983. 64. 1987 Playoffs: Boston vs. Los Angeles
Game 5. Secaucus, NJ: NBA Entertainment, Inc.1987. 65. NBA on NBC:
Game Four 1991 NBA Finals. Los Angeles: NBC 1991. 66. NBA on NBC:
Game One 1998 NBA Finals. Salt Lake City, Utah: NBC 1998. 67. 1987
Playoffs: Boston vs. Los Angeles Game 5. Secaucus, NJ: NBA
Entertainment, Inc.1987. 68. NBA on NBC: Game One 1998 NBA Finals.
Salt Lake City, Utah: NBC 1998. 69. ibid.70. NBA on CBS: Kansas City
at Houston. Secaucus, NJ: NBA Entertainment, Inc. 1980. 71. 1983
Playoffs: Boston vs. Milwaukee. Secaucus, NJ: NBA Entertainment, Inc.
1983. 72. 1987 Playoffs: Boston vs. Los Angeles Game 5. Secaucus, NJ:
NBA Entertainment, Inc.1987. 73. NBA on NBC: Game Four 1991 NBA
Finals. Los Angeles: NBC 1991.74. ibid.75. NBA on NBC: Game One 1998
NBA Finals. Salt Lake City, Utah: NBC 1998.76. ibid.77. ibid.78.
ibid.79. NBA on CBS: Kansas City at Houston. Secaucus, NJ: NBA
Entertainment, Inc. 1980.80. 1983 Playoffs: Boston vs. Milwaukee.
Secaucus, NJ: NBA Entertainment, Inc. 1983.81. ibid.82. 1987
Playoffs: Boston vs. Los Angeles Game 5. Secaucus, NJ: NBA
Entertainment, Inc.1987.83. NBA on NBC: Game Four 1991 NBA Finals.
Los Angeles: NBC 1991.84. NBA on NBC: Game One 1998 NBA Finals. Salt
Lake City, Utah: NBC 1998.
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133CHAPTER 10DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONSThe study of the NBA's
national television history revealed that there havebeen fluctuations
in interest in the league on television. In the 1950s, the NBA wasan
unknown commodity that was unattractive to networks and viewers
alikebecause of the slow pace of the game. It took a nationally
televised display of theNBA product to convince owners that the
league would never survive withoutmajor changes. The shot clock was
adopted the following season, and theimprovement was seen
immediately. In the 1960s, the NBA boasted some of its best players
for any one era. However, ratings were lukewarm at best, and NBC
dropped NBA games from itslineup in the early part of the decade. A
new commissioner and ABC put the NBAback on television, but there was
concern that would last into the 1970s thattelevision simply could
not capture the nuances of basketball. The '60s also saw theemergence
of two rival leagues as competition for the NBA, the ABL and the ABA.
The ABL folded after only a year-and-a half, but the ABA, established
in 1967,competed with the NBA for college and professional talent.
NBA expansion andthe competition with the ABA thinned out the talent
base for the professionals,leaving too many bad teams and not enough
good players.In the 1970s, the NBA started out promisingly. The
Knicks had won theirfirst championship, and basketball was being
hailed as "The Sport of the '70s." Theleague changed networks in the
early part of the decade, switching from ABC toCBS. The ratings were
suffering however. When the NBA and ABA finallymerged in 1976,
experts believed that all of the NBA's problems would be solved.
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134Instead, the problems worsened. Writers believed the problems were
image-related,and they cited everything from escalating salaries to
the perception that the NBAwas a "black"league and a drug-infested
league. Writers could not understand howa league that had more
skillful players to showcase than ever before was dying. Atthe end of
the decade, the NBA playoffs were shown on tape-delay due to a lack
ofinterest.In the early 1980s, the NBA's problems continued. The
Finals were stillbeing shown on tape-delay, and the league ratings
were still low. Then, in 1984, theCeltics and Lakers met in the NBA
Finals, which featured a Larry Bird versusMagic Johnson showdown. The
seventh game produced the highest NBA ratingsever, and the league,
behind new Commissioner David Stern, began to flourish. Among the
reasons cited for the league's revival were the institution of a
salary capand a landmark drug policy, as well as Stern's focus on
marketing the players. Theaddition of new superstars like Michael
Jordan and Charles Barkley elevated theNBA's status.By the time the
1990s began, the NBA was the most popular league insports. Michael
Jordan assumed the mantle of Bird and Magic as television's
mostbankable athlete. He led the Bulls to six championships during
the decade, and thetwo non-Bulls Finals generated low ratings in
contrast to those that the Bullsparticipated in Jordan has appeared
in 11 of the 15 highest-rated games in NBAhistory, and the NBA has
negotiated its largest television contracts during
Jordan'scareer.There were several key games in NBA history that
helped or hindered theleague's relationship with television. The 1954
playoff game between the Knicks
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135and Celtics was cited as a nationally televised game that forced
league officials tomake a rule change that would impact the game.
Danny Biasone's 24-second clocksaved the NBA, and the results were
seen immediately.Game One of the 1956 NBA Finals between the
Philadelphia Warriors andthe Fort Wayne Pistons was significant
because it was the first nationally televisedNBA Finals game. The
game is now forgotten, but it established a television firstfor the
NBA. However, it was another game in 1970 that would elevate
theleague's status like no game before it.In 1970, the New York
Knicks won their first-ever championship, and withit brought the
league more attention than it had ever received before. Game Sevenof
the 1970 NBA Finals was also memorable because it became the "Willis
ReedGame." It was called that because the image of Reed limping onto
the court beforethe game began remains one of the most famous images
in league history. However, the excitement generated by the Knicks'
championship was short-lived,and it would be 14 years before the NBA
would enjoy another popularity surge.Game Seven of the 1984 NBA
Finals was significant because it was thehighest-rated game in league
history at that time. It also ushered in the Magic-Birdera, as the
two players credited with saving the NBA would meet three times for
thechampionship in four years. Their 1987 meeting would be the
highest-rated NBAFinals series in history, until the Bulls-Suns
Finals in 1993.Game One of the 1991 NBA Finals was significant
because it was MichaelJordan's first Finals game ever, and because it
came against Magic and the Lakers. The torch was passed to Jordan as
the Bulls won, and he would lead Chicago to six
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136NBA titles in the '90s. Jordan also has left his mark on
television, as the Bullsannually draw the league's highest ratings.In
addition to these key games, a comparison was made between NBAgames
from the 1980s and those of today. It was found that in '90s
telecasts thereare more replays, more sophisticated graphics, and
more detailed analysis than in thepast. There also are more
announcers than ever before, and the hype surroundingthe games has
increased as well. Perhaps this is the best indication of how far the
league has come ontelevision, with the NBA Finals garnering as much
attention as any other majorsporting league championship except the
Super Bowl. The NBA has grown instature and popularity in the last
twenty years, but the doomsayers feel that it mightnot survive the
loss of Jordan and the possible elimination of an entire season due
toa lockout.ImplicationsIt was found that television had a
significant impact on not just the NBA,but print journalism and
broadcasting as well. In regards to the three questionsasked in the
methodology section, it was determined that the NBA made many
rulechanges to improve its image on the medium as well as to improve
ratings. Forinstance, during the 1950s the implementation of the 24-
second clock is widelyregarded as the one change that saved the
league because it eliminated the stallingtactics that turned off
viewers and the networks during the early 1950s. Other rulechanges,
such as the limitation of the number of fouls a team could commit
perquarter and the elimination of the bonus free throw, were made in
the interest of"speeding up the game" for television viewers.
Finally, the introduction of the
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137three-point shot and the elimination of hand-checking allowed for
a more wide-openstyle of basketball, which increased scoring and in
turn would attract viewers.Television also changed the way
sportswriters covered the games. Beforetelevision was introduced, a
minority of fans could actually see the games they wereinterested in.
Even when radio was the primary medium of information,
journalistswere able to provide accounts of what happened during the
games in order to painta picture for the sports fan. With the advent
of television, fans were able to seetheir teams perform when they
wanted. This shifted the focus of sportswriting fromsimply recapping
the key moments in a game to providing more analysis of how ateam
won. Also, sportswriters were forced to inspect the personal lives of
the athletesthey covered in order to provide a different aspect of
coverage. In addition,financial and legal information was
disseminated to readers as writers continued tofind new angles of the
games to explore. The NBA was not immune to thesechanges in print
journalism, and in today's sports pages there is as much
informationabout arrests and salary problems as there is coverage of
the games themselves. Writers were forced to diversify their coverage
in order to present new informationto the sports fans that he could
not get from simply watching the game.As for the last question,
television changed the way broadcasters presentedthe games to the
public. During the radio age, announcers were allowed toembellish the
truth since the avid fan could not see the plays as they occurred
andhad to rely solely on the announcers to provide information. Once
televisionarrived, broadcasting had to become more precise and more
analytical.
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138Like print journalists, broadcasters had to provide viewers with
somethingadditional because the viewers could see what was unfolding
on the screen. Soannouncers began to analyze what had occurred to
make a particular playsuccessful. This was done through the use of
replays from various camera angles toshow viewers exactly what the
announcers had seen and why they felt a particularplay had been
successful. The best insight was reserved for the ex-player whobecame
the color analyst for the networks, since he had the credibility to
tellviewers what the athletes were thinking when they made certain
plays since theanalyst had been in those situations before.
Announcers also highlighted key areasof the game where they felt one
team was superior than another, and they usedthese key points to
inform viewers how the games would be won or lost. This wasdone
through the use of graphics, which in the 1990s has evolved to
includestatistics such as points scored for a team while its star
player rested, and shotcharts that follow the performances of key
players.
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139APPENDIX ANBA FRANCHISES BY DECADE SINCE 1946NBA in 1946-
47:Eastern Division:Western Division:Washington CapitolsChicago Stags
(1948-49)Philadelphia WarriorsSt. Louis Bombers (1948-49)New York
KnickerbockersCleveland Rebels (1946-47)Providence Steamrollers (1948-
49)Detroit Falcons (1946-47)Toronto Huskies (1946-47)Pittsburgh
Ironmen (1946-47)Boston CelticsDates in parentheses denote last
season of play for each team1950-51:Eastern Division:Western
Division:Philadelphia WarriorsMinneapolis Lakers(1948)$Boston
CelticsRochester Royals (1948)$New York KnickerbockersFort Wayne
Pistons (1948)$Syracuse Nationals (1949)$Indianapolis Olympians(1948-
53)Washington Capitols*Tri-Cities Blackhawks (1949)* Folded midway
through seasonParentheses denote years teams entered the league,
Indianapolis operatedfrom 1948-49 season to 1952-53$ NBL teams that
joined the BAA to form the NBA in 1948-49 and 1950-51
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Page 147
1401960-61:Eastern Division:Western Division:Boston CelticsSt. Louis
Hawks $Philadelphia WarriorsLos Angeles Lakers *Syracuse
NationalsDetroit Pistons >New York KnickerbockersCincinnati Royals <$
Moved from Milwaukee (1951-1955) prior to 1955-56 season* Moved from
Minneapolis prior to 1960-61 season> Moved from Fort Wayne prior to
1957-58 season< Moved from Rochester prior to 1957-58 season1970-
71:Eastern ConferenceWestern ConferenceAtlantic Division:Midwest
Division:New York KnickerbockersMilwaukee Bucks (1968)Philadelphia
76ers *Chicago Bulls (1966)Boston CelticsPhoenix Suns (1968)Buffalo
Braves (1970)Detroit PistonsCentral Division:Pacific
Division:Baltimore Bullets <Los Angeles LakersAtlanta Hawks >San
Francisco Warriors $Cincinnati RoyalsSan Diego Rockets (1967)
Cleveland Cavaliers (1970)Seattle Supersonics (1967)Portland Trail
Blazers (1970)Parentheses denote years teams began play* Moved from
Syracuse prior to 1963-64 season> Moved from Milwaukee prior to 1968-
69 season$ Moved from Philadelphia prior to 1962-63 season< Founded
in 1961 as Chicago Packers; renamed the Zephyrs in 1962;moved to
Baltimore in 1963
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Page 148
1411980-81:Eastern ConferenceWestern ConferenceAtlantic
Division:Midwest Division:Boston CelticsSan Antonio Spurs
*Philadelphia 76ersKansas City Kings <New York KnickerbockersHouston
Rockets $Washington Bullets >Denver Nuggets *New Jersey Nets *Utah
Jazz (1974) +Dallas Mavericks (1980)Central Division:Pacific
Division:Milwaukee BucksPhoenix SunsChicago BullsLos Angeles
LakersIndiana Pacers *Portland Trail BlazersAtlanta HawksGolden State
Warriors ^Cleveland CavaliersSan Diego Clippers #Detroit
PistonsSeattle Supersonics* ABA teams that joined NBA in merger in
1976> Moved from Baltimore and renamed the Capitol Bullets in 1973;
renamedWashington Bullets in 1974< Moved from Cincinnati to Omaha in
1972; renamed Kansas City in 1975$ Moved from San Diego in 1971+
Founded as New Orleans Jazz in 1974; moved to Utah in 1979^ Moved
from San Francisco to Oakland, CA in 1971# Founded in 1970 as Buffalo
Braves; moved to San Diego and renamed theClippers in 1978Parentheses
denote years teams joined league
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Page 149
1421990-91:Eastern ConferenceWestern ConferenceAtlantic
Division:Midwest Division:Boston CelticsSan Antonio SpursPhiladelphia
76ersUtah JazzNew York KnickerbockersHouston RocketsWashington
BulletsOrlando Magic (1989)New Jersey NetsMinnesota Timberwolves(1989)
Miami Heat (1988)Dallas MavericksDenver NuggetsCentral
Division:Pacific Division:Chicago BullsPortland Trail BlazersDetroit
PistonsLos Angeles LakersMilwaukee BucksPhoenix SunsAtlanta
HawksGolden State WarriorsIndiana PacersSeattle SupersonicsCleveland
CavaliersLos Angeles Clippers *Charlotte Hornets (1988)Sacramento
Kings $Parentheses denotes years teams entered league* Moved from San
Diego in 1984$ Moved from Kansas City in 1985
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Page 150
1431997-98:Eastern ConferenceWestern ConferenceAtlantic
Division:Midwest Division:Miami HeatUtah JazzNew York
KnickerbockersSan Antonio SpursNew Jersey NetsMinnesota
TimberwolvesWashington Wizards *Houston RocketsOrlando MagicDallas
MavericksBoston CelticsVancouver Grizzlies (1995)Philadelphia
76ersDenver NuggetsCentral Division:Pacific Division:Chicago
BullsSeattle Sonics $Indiana PacersLos Angeles LakersCharlotte
HornetsPhoenix SunsAtlanta HawksPortland Trail BlazersCleveland
CavaliersSacramento KingsMilwaukee BucksGolden State WarriorsToronto
Raptors (1995)Los Angeles Clippers* Renamed the Wizards in 1997$
Renamed the Sonics in 1997Sources: The Sporting News Official NBA
Guide: 1996-97 EditionThe Official NBA EncyclopediaProfessional
Sports Team Histories: Basketball
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Page 151
144APPENDIX BNBA TELEVISION CONTRACTSNBA Cable Television
ContractsSeasonsStationContract Amount1979-80 to 1981-82USA$1.5
million/3 years1982-83 to 1983-84USA/ESPN$11 million/2 years1984-85
to 1985-86TBS$20 million/2 years1986-87 to 1987-88TBS$25 million/2
years1988-89 to 1989-90TBS/TNT$50 million/2 years1990-91 to 1993-
94TNT$275 million/4 years1994-95 to 1997-98TNT/TBS$352 million/4
years1998-99 to 2001-02TNT/TBS$890 million/4 yearsNBA Network
Television ContractsSeasonsNetworkContract Amount1953-
54DuMont$39,000/13 games1954-55 to 1961-62NBCN/A1962-63 to 1972-
73ABCN/A1973-74 to 1975-76CBS$27 million/3 years1976-77 to 1977-
78CBS$21 million/2 years1978-79 to 1981-82CBS$74 million/4 years1982-
83 to 1985-86CBS$88 million/4 years1986-87 to 1989-90CBS$173
million/4 years1990-91 to 1993-94NBC$600 million/4 years1994-95 to
1997-98NBC$750 million/4 years1998-99 to 2001-02NBC$1.75 billion/4
yearsSource: The National Basketball Association
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----------
Page 152
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Page 160
153BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHMario Ricardo Sarmento was born on May 28,
1975, in Horta, Faial, one of theAzorian islands off the coast of
Portugal. After being graduated from Nova HighSchool in Davie, FL, in
1993, he enrolled in Florida State University. The authorreceived his
Bachelor of Science degree in media communications at Florida
StateUniversity in 1997. He is expected to receive his Master of Arts
in MassCommunication degree from the University of Florida in
December 1998. Theauthor's area of specialization is sports
journalism.
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